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REVIEW
- HISTORY AND METHODS
- BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
- SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
- STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
- LEARNING
- MEMORY
- COGNITION
- DEVELOPMENT
- MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
- PERSONALITY
- TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES /INTELLIGENCE
- ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
- TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
- SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
HISTORY AND METHODS Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes
A Brief History-
Wilhelm Wundt- founded first research lab in 1879- birth of scientific
psychology
Structuralism � studied consciousness- introspection, examining one�s mind
and what one is thinking and feeling. Edward Titchener
Functionalism- look at function not structure, stress adaptation to the
environment.
William James (Principles of Psychology in 1890) John Dewey
Gestalt psychology � focus on the totality of perception, Max Wertheimer
Psychoanalysis- Sigmund Freud- focus on role of unconscious conflicts, the
process of raising these conflicts to a level of awareness is the goal of
psychoanalysis
Current Views of Psychology-
Neurobiology- Behavior viewed in terms of biological responses
Behaviorism- Behavior viewed as a product of learned responses.
Humanism- Behavior viewed as a reflection of internal growth. Free will,
self-actualization, Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy
Psychodynamic � Behavior viewed as a reflection of unconscious aggressive
and sexual impulses
Cognitive Behavior viewed as a product of various internal sentences or
thoughts.Psychology �
Sociocultural � Behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules &
expectations of specific social groups or cultures
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Psychology- the scientific study of the behavior of living things
4 goals- describe, understand, predict and control
theory � general framework for scientific study; smaller aspects can be
tested
Charles Darwin � theories led to comparative psychology, inspired early
functionalists
Wilhelm Wundt- �father of psychology�, first scientific lab
Introspection- the process of looking into yourself and describing what is
there
Structuralism- the first theoretical school in psychology, stated that all
complex substances could be separated and analyzed into component elements
Sigmund Freud- psychodynamic approach, emphasis on the unconscious
William James- wrote �Principles of Psychology�, a functionalist , coined
the phrase�stream of consciousness�
Functionalist � asked what the mind does and why, believed that all behavior
and mental processes help organisms to adat to a changing environment
John. B. Watson- behaviorist, Little Albert
Gestalt psychology �emphasized the organizational processes in behavior,
rather than the content of behavior, the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts
Eclecticism � the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or
more other systems.
Neurobiological approach (medical)- viewing behavior as the result of
nervous system functions and biology
Behavioral approach �view behavior as the product of learning and
associations
B. F. Skinner- behaviorist, operant conditioning
Humanistic approach- believe people are basically good and capable of
helping themselves.
Carl Rogers- a humanist
Psychoanalysis- a system of viewing the individual as the product of
unconscious forces
Cognitive approach- emphasizing how humans use mental processes to handle
problems or develop certain personality characteristics
Sociocultural approach � behavior viewed as strongly influenced by the rules
& expectations of specific social groups or cultures
Placebo � a �medicine� with no active ingredients
Double-blind study- neither participants or researchers know who is in which
group
Hypothesis- a statement of the results that the experimenter expects
Subjects- people or animals in the experiment
Independent variable- factor that the experimenter manipulates in a study
Dependent variable- the factor in a study that changes as a result of
changes in the IV
Confounding variable- factors that may cause the DV to change other than the
IV
Field experiments- research that takes place outside the laboratory
Experimental group- the group that gets the changes in the IV
Control group- this group is for comparison and doesn�t get the changed IV
Survey- method of research using questions on feelings opinions, or behavior
patterns
Sample- a group that represents a larger group
Naturalistic observation- research method that involves studying subjects
without their being aware that they are being watched
Interview- a research method that involves studying people face to face and
asking questions
Case study method- research that collects lengthy, detailed info. About a
person�s background, usually for treatment
Cross-sectional method- looks at different age groups at the same time in
order to understand changes that occur during the life span
Longitudinal method- studies the same group of people over a long period of
time
Reliability � results of a test or study must be reproducible
Validity � measures what the psychologist wishes to measure
Construct validity � the extent to which a test measures something � a
theoretical construct
Criterion-related validity- refers to how effective a test is in predicting
an individual�s behavior in other specified situations (ex. SAT)
Informed consent � telling subjects all features of the experiment prior to
the study
Inferential statistics � used to measure sampling error, draw conclusions
from data, and test hypotheses (ex. T-test, chi-squares, analyses of
variance)
Descriptive statistics � answer the question what is the data, include
measures of central tendency
Mean- average
Median- middle number
Mode � most frequent number
Variability- how the data spreads across a graph (range, standard deviation,
Z-
Correlation � relationship between 2 sets of scores, range between +1.00
and �1.00, the closer to 1 the stronger the correlation
Z-score �a way of expressing a score�s distance from the mean in terms of
the standard deviation
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR THE HUMAN BRAIN
The influence of biology (sometimes called the neuroscience or
biopsychological perspective) is growing. Some researchers predict that
someday psychology will be a specialty within the field of biology. An
understanding of the biological principles relevant to psychology is needed
to understand current psychological thinking.
The human brain consists of three major divisions; hindbrain, midbrain, and
forebrain
Major Division Subdivision Structures
Prosencephalon
(Forebrain) Telencephalon Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala;
Hippocampus; Lateral Ventricles
Diencephalon Thalamus; Hypothalamus; Epithalamus; Third Ventricle
Mesencephalon
(Midbrain) Mesencephalon Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral Aqueduct
Rhombencephalon
(Hindbrain) Metencephalon Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle
Myelencephalon Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle
Brain Structure
1. Hindbrain- structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls
basic biological functions that keep us alive. Medulla- controls blood
pressure, heart rate, and breathing; Pons- connects the hindbrain with the
mid and forebrain, also involved in the control of facial expressions;
Cerebellum- portion of the lower brain that coordinates and organizes bodily
movements for balance and accuracy.
2 Midbrain-between the hind and forebrain, coordinates simple
movements with sensory information.
3 Forebrain- controls what we think of as thought and reason.
Thalamus- portion of the lower brain that functions primarily as a central
relay station for incoming and outgoing messages from the body to the brain
and the brain to the body Hypothalamus- portion of the lower brain that
regulates basic needs (hunger, thirst) and emotions such as pleasure, fear,
rage, and sexuality
Amygdala and Hippocampus- two arms surrounding the thalamus, important in
how we process and perceive memory and emotion
NOTE: The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic
system because they all deal with aspects of emotion and memory.
What is a neuron?
A neuron is a nerve cell. The brain is made up of about 100 billion neurons.
Neurons are similar to other cells in the body in some ways such as:
1. Neurons are surrounded by a membrane.
2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other "organelles".
However, neurons differ from other cells in the body in some ways such as:
1. Neurons have specialized projections called dendrites and axons.
Dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons take information away
from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical
process.
3. Neurons form specialized connections called "synapses" and produce
special chemicals called "neurotransmitters" that are released at the
synapse.
It has been estimated that there are 1 quadrillion synapses in the human
brain. That's 1015 or 1,000,000,000,000,000 synapses! This is equal to about
a half-billion synapses per cubic millimeter. (Statistic from Changeux, J-P.
and Ricoeur, P., What Makes Us Think?, Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2000, p. 78)
How big is the brain? How much does the brain weigh?
The adult human brain weighs btwn 1300 g &1400 g (about 3 lbs). A newborn
brain weighs btwn 350 & 400 g.
For comparison:
elephant brain = 6,000 g
chimpanzee brain = 420 g
beagle dog brain = 72 g
cat brain = 30 g
rat brain = 2 g rhesus monkey brain = 95 g
Ways of studying the brain
Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized axial tomography,
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Positron emission tomography, Functional
MRI
Neuroanatomy
Neuron � a nerve cell, which transmits electrical and chemical information
throughout the body
dendrite- part of the neuron that receives information from the axons of
other nerve cells
Axon- part of the neuron that carries messages away from one neuron to the
dendrites of another
Cell body, or soma- contains the nucleus and other
parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
Myelin sheath- a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural
impulses
Terminal buttons- the branched end of the axon that contains
neurotransmitters
Vesicles � bubblelike containers of neurotransmitters, located at the end of
an axon
Neurotransmitters-� chemicals in the endings of nerve cells that
send information across the synapse
Acetylcholine � neurotransmitter that regulates basic bodily processes such
as movement
Dopamine � a neurotransmitter involved in the control of bodily movements (
involved in Parkinson�s disease, and Alzheimer�s)
Endorphins � neurotransmitters that relieve pain and increase our sense of
wellbeing
Serotonin- mood control
Synapse- the junction point of two or more neurons; a connection is made by
neurotransmitters.
Action potential
All-or-none principle
Afferent neurons, or sensory neurons
Interneurons
Efferent neurons, or motor neurons
Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system- - all other nerves
Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movements
Autonomic nervous system- controls involuntary movements
Sympathetic nervous system- speeds things up- prepares body for fight or
flight
Parasympathetic nervous system-- brings the body back to normal
Cerebral cortex- covers the lower brain and controls mental processes such
as thought
Frontal lobes-� contains the motor strip and frontal association area
Frontal association area � plays an important part in integrating
personality and in forming complex thoughts
Motor strip- band running down the side of the frontal lobe that controls
all bodily movements
Parietal lobes -� area that contains the sensory strip
Sensory strip- band running down the side of he parietal lobe that registers
and provides all sensation
Occipital lobes- area that interprets visual information
Temporal lobes- area responsible for hearing and some speech functions
Lobe- major division of the brain
Hemispheres- one-half of the two halves of the brain; controls the opposite
side of the body
Brain lateralization
Corpus callosum - bundle of nerve fibers that transfers info. From one
hemisphere to the other
Fissure- a lengthy depression marking off an area of the brain
Reticular activating system- the alertness control center of the brain,
regulates the activity level of the body
Split-brain
Brain plasticity
Endocrine system � system of all the glands and their chemical messages
taken together
Hormones � chemical regulators that control bodily processes such as
emotional responses, growth, and sexuality
Pituitary gland � the master gland of the body that activates other glands
and controls the growth hormone
Growth hormone � hormone that regulates the growth process
Thyroid gland � controls and regulates the speed of bodily processes called
metabolism
Metabolism � the speed at which the body operates of the speed at which it
uses up energy
Adrenal glands � glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in
order to prepare the body for an emergency
Adrenaline � chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by
increasing blood pressure, breathing rate, and energy level
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensation -Experience of sensory stimulation, the activation or our senses
Perception -Process of creating meaningful patterns from raw sensory
information
ENERGY SENSES
VISION
Vision is the dominant sense in human beings. Sighted people use vision to
gather information about their environment more than any other sense. The
process of vision involves several steps.
Step 1: Gathering light
Step 2: Within the eye
Cornea -The transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye
Pupil -small opening in the iris through which light enters the eye.
Iris -colored part of the eye.
Lens -transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto
the retina
Retina -lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to
light
Step 3: Transduction
Transduction �process by which sensory signals are transformed into neural
impulses
Receptor cell -Specialized cell that responds to a particular type of
energy.
Rods -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and
perception of brightness.
Cones -Receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision
Fovea -Area of the retina that is the center of the visual field
Optic nerve - The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural
messages from each eye to the brain.
Blind spot - Place on the retina where the axons of all the ganglion cells
leave the eye and where there are no receptors Optic chiasm -Point near the
base of the brain where some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross
to the other side of the brain
Step 4: In the Brain
Theories or color vision-
Trichromatic theory -Theory of color vision that holds that all color
perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina
Opponent-process theory - Theory of color vision that holds that three sets
of color receptors respond in an either/or fashion to determine the color
you experience
Colorblindness -Partial or total inability to perceive hues.
Trichromats -People who have normal color vision
Monochromats -People who are totally color blind
Dichromats - People who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue
HEARING
The ears contain structures for both the sense of hearing and the sense of
balance. The eighth cranial nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve made up of the
auditory and vestibular nerves) carries nerve impulses for both hearing and
balance from the ear to the brain.
Amplitude � the height of the wave , determines the loudness of the sound,
measured in decibels
Frequency - The number of cycles per second in a wave; in sound, the primary
determinant of pitch
Hertz (Hz) - Cycles per second; unit of measurement for the frequency of
waves
Pitch - Auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound
vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone Decibel -The magnitude of a
wave; in sound the primary determinant of loudness of sounds
Parts of the ear-
Ear canal � also called the auditory canal
Eardrum-
Hammer, anvil, stirrup - The three small bones in the middle ear that relay
vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear
Oval window - Membrane across the opening between the middle ear and inner
ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea
Round window - Membrane between the middle ear and inner ear that equalizes
pressure in the inner ear.
Cochlea - Part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates which in turn
causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.
Basilar membrane -Vibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear; it
contains sense receptors for sound
Organ of Corti -Structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that
contains the receptors cells for hearing
Auditory nerve -The bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to
the brain
PITCH THEORIES- As with color vision, two different theories describe the
two processes involved in hearing pitch: place theory and frequency theory.
Place theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest
vibration of the basilar membrane
Frequency theory -Theory that pitch is determined by the frequency wigh
which hair cells in the cochlea fire
DEAFNESS
Hearing Loss
People can lose all or some of their ability to hear because of loud noises,
infections, head injuries, brain damage and genetic diseases. Hearing loss
is common in older people. There are several types of hearing loss:
�Conductive Hearing Loss: occurs when sound vibrations from the
tympanic membrane to the inner ear are blocked. This may be caused by ear
wax in the auditory canal, fluid buildup in the middle ear, ear infections
or abnormal bone growth.
�Sensorineural Hearing Loss: occurs when there is damage to the
vestibulocochlear (auditory) nerve. This type of hearing loss may be caused
by head injury, birth defects, high blood pressure or stroke.
�Presbycusis: occurs because of changes in the inner ear. This is a
very common type of hearing loss that happens gradually in older age.
�Tinnitus: people with tinnitus hear a constant ringing or roaring
sound. The cause of this ringing cannot always be found. Some cases of
tinnitus are caused by ear wax, ear infections or a reaction to antibiotics,
but there are many other possible causes of this disorder.
TOUCH
When our skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature,
our sense of touch is activated by this energy.
Gate control theory - Theory that a �neurological gate in the spinal cord
controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain
CHEMICAL SENSES
TASTE (GUSTATION)
Taste buds
Papillae-
Humans sense four different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter
All other tastes come from a combination of these four basic tastes.
Actually, a fifth basic taste called "Umami" has recently been discovered.
Umami is a taste that occurs when foods with glutamate (like MSG) are eaten.
Different parts of the tongue can detect all types of tastes. Morever, the
simple tongue "taste map" that is found in many textbooks has been
criticized for several reasons.
The actual organ of taste is called the "taste bud". Each taste bud (and
there about about 10,000 taste buds in humans) is made up of many (between
50-150) receptor cells. Receptor cells live for only 1 to 2 weeks and then
are replaced by new receptor cells. Each receptor in a taste bud responds
best to one of the basic tastes. A receptor can respond to the other tastes,
but it responds strongest to a particular taste.
SMELL (OLFACTION)
The smells of a rose, perfume, freshly baked bread and cookies...these
smells are all made possible because of your nose and brain. The sense of
smell, called olfaction, involves the detection and perception of chemicals
floating in the air. Chemical molecules enter the nose and dissolve in
mucous within a membrane called the olfactory epithelium. In humans, the
olfactory epithelium is located about 7 cm up and into the nose from the
nostrils.
Olfactory epithelium - Nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive
to odors
Pheromone - Chemical that communicates information to other organisms
through smell
VESTIBULAR SENSE � tells us about how our body is oriented in space.
Semicircular canals - Structure in the inner ear particularly sensitive to
body roataion.
Vestibular sacs - Sacs in the inner ear that are responsible for sensing
gravitation and forward, backward, and vertical movement
KINESTHETIC SENSES -Senses of forces and movement of muscles
Stretch receptors -Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction
Golgi tendon organs -Receptors that sense movement of the tendons, which
connect muscle to bone.
PERCEPTION
THRESHOLDS
Absolute threshold -The least amount of energy that can be detected as a
stimulation 50 percent of the time
Subliminal- stimuli below our absolute threshold
Difference threshold -The smallest change in stimulation that can be
detected 50 percent of the time
just-noticeable difference � the smallest amount of change needed in a
stimulus before we detect a change
Weber�s Law -The principle that the just noticeable difference for any given
sense is a constant proportion of the stimulation being judged.
PERCEPTUAL THEORIES-Psychologists use several theories to describe how we
perceive the world.
Signal detection theory- investigates the effects of the distractions and
interference we experience while perceiving the world.
Response criteria
False positive
Top-Down Processing � we perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense
Schemata
Perceptual set
Backmasking
Bottom-up Processing, also called feature analysis � we use only the
features of the object itself to build a complete perception
GESTALT RULES
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Closure
CONSTANCY- Tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite
changes in sensory stimulation
Size constancy - Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the
distance from which it is viewed
Shape constancy - Tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what
angle it is viewed from
Brightness constancy - Perception of brightness as the same, even though the
amount of light reaching the retina changes
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff experiment-
Monocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of one eye
interposition - Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partly
blocking a second object, is perceived as being closer.
Linear perspective - Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact
that two parallel lines seem to come together at the horizon
Relative size-
Texture gradient-
Shadowing-
Binocular cues - Visual cues requiring the use of both eyes
Retinal disparity - Binocular distance cue based on the difference between
the images
Convergence- cast on the two retinas when both eyes are focused on the same
object
Stereoscopic vision - Combination of two retinal images to give a three-
dimensional perceptual experience.
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS We spend about 8 hours/day, 56 hours/week, 224 hours/month and 2,688
hours/year doing it...that's right...SLEEPING. One third of our lives we are
apparently doing nothing. But is sleep really doing nothing? It looks like
it...a person's eyes are closed; muscles are relaxed; breathing is regular;
there is no response to sound or light. However, if you take a look at what
is happening inside the brain, you will find quite a different situation -
the brain is very active.
Scientists can record brain activity by attaching electrodes to the scalp
and then connecting these electrodes to a machine called an
electroencephalograph. The encephalogram (or EEG) is the record of brain
activity recorded with this machine. The wavy lines of the EEG are what most
people know as "brain waves".
Consciousness is our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.
Conscious level-the information about yourself and your environment
you are currently aware of.
Nonconscious level-body processes controlled by your mind that we are
not usually aware of.
Preconscious level-information about yourself or your environment that you
are not currently thinking about but you could be.
Subconscious level-Information that we are not consciously aware of
but we know must exist due to behavior.
Unconscious level-Psychoanalytic psychologists believe some evens
and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into
the unconscious mind. Many psychologists object to this concept as
difficult or impossible to prove.
Mere-exposure effect - prefer stimuli we have seen before over novel stimuli
Priming - respond more quickly and/or accurately to questions they have seen
before
Blind sight - person being blind being able to grasp an object they cannot
see
SLEEP CYCLE
Circadian rhythm
Sleep stages
REM rapid eye movement
SLEEP DISORDERS
�Insomnia- problems of getting to or staying asleep, effects up to
10% of the population
�Narcolepsy- extreme sleepiness - sleep attacks Go to
�Sleep apnea- stop breathing during sleep
�Night terrors- usually occur in children are dreams outside of REM,
during stage 4 sleep
�Somnambulism- sleep walking
DREAM THEORIES
Freudian Theory - believes that dreams reveal information in the unconscious
mind
Manifest content- literal content
Latent content - deeper meaning
Activation-synthesis Theory - dreams are nothing more than the brains
interpretation of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep
Information-processing Theory - dreams may be a way to integrate the
information processed during the day into our memories
HYPNOSIS
Posthypnotic amnesia - forget events that occurred during hypnosis
Posthypnotic suggestibility -
Role Theory - says hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness,
points out that some people are more easily hypnotized than others.
State Theory - hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
Dissociation Theory - Hilgard studied, it causes to divide our consciousness
voluntarily - the experiment that demonstrated the hidden observer effect
DRUGS For information on specific drugs go to:
Blood-brain barrier agonist
Tolerance antagonist
Withdrawal
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS TERMS
Consciousness- the awareness or, or the possibility of knowing, what is
happening inside or outside the organism
Subconscious � consciousness just below our present awareness
Unconscious � thoughts or desires about which we can have no direct knowledge
Chronobiology � the study of forces that control the body at different times
of the day, month, or year
Construct � a concept requiring a belief in something that cannot be seen or
touched but that seems to exist
Biological clocks � internal chemical units that control regular cycles in
parts of the body
Free-running cycles � cycles set up by biological clocks that are under
their own control, ignoring the environment
Entrainment � the process of altering the free-running cycle to fit a
different rhythm
Circadian rhythm � sequences of behavioral changes that occur every 24 hours
Twilight state � relaxed state just before we fall asleep
REM sleep � rapid eye movement sleep when we dream
Beta waves - rapid brain waves; appear when a person is awake
Alpha waves � stage 1, fairly relaxed brain waves occurring just before
going to sleep; relaxed
Delta waves � slow, lazy, deep-sleep brain waves.
NREM sleep � non-rapid eye movement sleep/ sleep involving partial thoughts,
images,or stories, poor organization
Nightmare � frightening dream during REM
REM rebound � increase in the number of dreams after being deprived of them
Incubus attack � also called a night terror, a horrible dream occurring
during NREM when the body is not prepared for it
Insomnia � the inability to get enough sleep
Narcolepsy - disorder in which a person falls instantly into sleep no matter
what is going on in the environment
Sleep apnea � breathing stops while someone is asleep
Hypnosis � a state of relaxation in which attention is focused on certain
objects, acts, or feelings.
Meditation � a form of self-control in which the outside world is cut off
from consciousness
Altered state of consciousness � mental state that differs noticeably from
normal waking consciousness
Psychoactive drugs � chemical substances that change moods and perceptions
Dreams � vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during
REM periods of sleep
Substance abuse � a pattern of drug use that diminishes the user�s ability
to fulfill responsibilities at home, work or school, that results in
repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations, legal problems
Substance dependence � a pattern of compulsive drug taking that often
results in tolerance and or withdrawal
Tolerance � phenomenon whereby higher doses of a drug are required to
produce its original effects or to prevent withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal symptoms � unpleasant physical or psychological effects that
follow the discontinuance of a dependence-producing substance.
Drugs � know the effects � opiates, stimulants, amphetamines, cocaine,
depressants, hallucinogens, alcohol, LSD, barbiturates, marijuana
LEARNING Learning- a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING � learning based on association of stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
Unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
Acquisition phase
Delayed conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Backward conditioning
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
First-order conditioning
Second-order conditioning
Equipotentiality
Learned taste aversions
Salient
Contiguity model � the Pavlovian model, the more times two things are
paired, the greater the learning that will take place
Contingency model- Rescorla � rests of cognitive view of classical
conditioning, If A is contingent on B and vice versa then one predicts the
other, learning more powerful.
OPERANT CONDITIONING � kind of learning based on the association of
consequences with one�s behavior.
Edward Thorndike
Law of effect
Instrumental learning
B.F. Skinner
Skinner box
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Omission training
Punishment
Escape learning
Avoidance learning
Shaping
Chaining
Primary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers
Premack principle � the reinforcing properties of something depend on the
situation
Instinctive drift
Reinforcement schedules differ in two ways:
�What determines when reinforcement is delivered � the number of
responses made (ratio) or the passage of time (interval)
�The pattern of reinforcement � either constant (fixed) or changing
(variable)
Observational learning �
�also known as modeling
�was studied by Albert Bandura in formulating his social-learning
theory
�A significant body of research indicates that children learn violent
behaviors from watching violent television programs and violent adult models
Latent learning
�studied by Edward Tolman
�is hidden learning
�experiment with maze running rats, ones that didn�t initially get a
reward didn�t seem to learn, but when they started being rewarded their
performance changed drastically
Abstract learning
�involves understanding concepts such as tree or same
�Skinner box pigeons picking out certain shapes
Insight learning
�Wolfgang Kohler did studies with chimpanzees
�Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
�Chimps using boxes to reach banana
What Is Learning?
*Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience. Learning resulting from conditioning depends on reinforcement.
Reinforcement increases the probability that a particular response will
occur.
�Classical (or respondent) conditioning and instrumental (or Operant)
conditioning are two basic types of learning.
�In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus begins to
elicit a response through association with another stimulus. In operant
conditioning, the frequency and pattern of voluntary responses are altered
by their consequences.
How does classical conditioning occur?
�Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, occurs when a neutral
stimulus(NS) is associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US).
�The US causes a reflex called the unconditioned response (UR). If
the NS is consistently paired with the US, it becomes a conditioned stimulus
(CS) capable of producing a response by itself. This response is a
conditioned (learned) response (CR).
�When the conditioned stimulus is followed by the unconditioned
stimulus, conditioning is reinforced (strengthened).
�From an informational view, conditioning creates expectancies, which
alter response patterns. In classical conditioning the CS creates an
expectancy that the US will follow.
�Higher order conditioning occurs when a well-learned conditioned
stimulus is used as if it were an unconditioned stimulus, bringing about
further learning.
�When the CS is repeatedly presented alone, conditioning is
extinguished (weakened or inhibited). After extinction seems to be
complete, a rest period may lead to the temporary reappearance of a
conditioned response. This is called spontaneous recovery.
�Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the conditioned
stimulus will also produce a response. Generalization gives way to stimulus
discrimination when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to
similar stimuli.
Does Conditioning affect emotions?
�Conditioning applies to visceral or emotional responses as well as
simple reflexes. As a result, conditioned emotional responses (CERs) also
occur.
�Irrational fears called phobias may be CERs. Conditioning of
emotional responses can occur vicariously (secondhand) as well as directly.
How does operant conditioning occur?
�Operant conditioning occurs when voluntary action is followed by a
reinforcer. Reinforcement in operant conditioning increases the frequency
or probability of a response. This result is based on the law of effect.
�Complex operant responses can be taught by reinforcing successive
approximations to a final desired response. This is called shaping. It is
particularly useful in training animals.
�If an operant response is not reinforced, it may extinguish
(disappear). But after extinction seems complete, it may temporarily
reappear (spontaneous recovery).
Are there different kinds of operant reinforcement?
�In positive reinforcement, a reward or pleasant event follows a
response. In negative reinforcement, a response that ends discomfort
becomes more likely.
�Primary reinforcers are �natural�, physiologically based rewards.
Intracranial stimulation of �pleasure centers� in the brain can also serve
as a primary reinforcer.
�Secondary reinforcers are learned. They typically gain their
reinforcing value by direct association with primary reinforcers or because
they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers. Tokens and money gain
their reinforcing value in this way.
�Feedback, or knowledge of results, aids learning and improves
performance. It is most effective when it is immediate, detailed and
frequent.
�Programmed instruction breaks learning into a series of small steps,
and provides immediate feedback. Computer-assisted instruction (CAT) does
the same but has the added advantage of providing alternate exercises and
information when needed. Four variations of CAI are drill and practice,
instructional games, educational simulations, and interactive videodisk
instruction.
How are we influenced by patterns of reward?
�delay of reinforcement greatly reduces its effectiveness, but long
chains of responses may be built up so that a single reinforcer maintains
many responses.
�Superstitious behaviors often become part of response chains because
they appear to be associated with reinforcement�.
�Reward or reinforcement may be given continuously (after every
response) or on a schedule of partial reinforcement. Partial reinforcement
produces greater resistance to extinction.
�The four most basic schedules of reinforcement are fixed ratio,
variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Each produces a
distinct pattern of responding.
�Stimuli that precede a reinforced response tend to control the
response on future occasions (stimulus control). Two aspects of stimulus
control are generalization and discrimination.
�In generalization an operant response tends to occur when stimuli
similar to those preceding reinforcement are present.
�In discrimination, responses are given in the presence of
discriminative stimuli associated with reinforcement (S+) and withheld in
the presence of stimuli associated with nonreinforcement (S-)
What does punishment do to behavior?
�Punishment decreases responding. Punishment occurs when a response
is followed by the onset of an aversive event or by the removal of a
positive event (response cost)
�Punishment is most effective when it is immediate, consistent and
intense. Mild punishment tends to only temporarily suppress responses that
are also reinforced or were acquired by reinforcement.
�The undesirable side effects of punishment include the conditioning
of fear to punishing agents and situations associated with punishment, the
learning of escape and avoidance responses, and the encouragement of
aggression.
What is cognitive learning?
�Cognitive learning involves higher mental processes. such as
understanding, knowing, or anticipating. Even in relatively simple learning
situations, animals and people seem to form cognitive maps (internal
representations or relationships).
�In latent learning, learning remains hidden or unseen until a reward
or incentive for performance is offered.
�Discovery learning emphasizes insight and understanding, in contrast
to rote learning.
Does learning occur by imitation?
�Much human learning is achieved through observation, or modeling.
Observational learning is influenced by the personal characteristics of the
model and the success or failure of the model�s behavior. Studies have
shown that aggression is readily learned and released by modeling.
�Television characters can act as powerful models for observational
learning. Televised violence increases the likelihood of aggression by
viewers.
How does conditioning apply to practical problems?
�Operant principles can be readily applied to manage behavior in
everyday settings. When managing one�s own behavior, self-reinforcement,
self-recording, feedback, and behavioral contracting are all helpful.
�Four strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing
alternate responses, promoting extinction, breaking response chains, and
avoiding antecedent cues.
�In school, self-regulated learners typically do all of the
following: They set learning goals, plan learning strategies, use self-
instruction, monitor their progress, evaluate themselves, reinforce
successes, and take corrective action when required.
How does biology influence learning?
�Many animals are born with innate behavior patterns far more complex
than reflexes. These are organized into fixed action patterns (FAPs), which
are stereotyped, species-specific behaviors.
�Learning in animals is limited at times by various biological
constraints and species-typical behaviors.
�According to prepared fear theory, some stimuli are especially
effective conditioned stimuli.
�Many responses are subject to instinctive drift in operant
conditioning. Human learning is subtly influenced by many such biological
potentials and limits
MEMORY Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time
Several different models, or explanations, of how memory works have emerged
from memory research. Two of the most important models: the three-
box/information processing model and the levels of processing model.
Neither model is perfect.
Three Box model proposes the three stages that information passes through
before it is stored:
Sensory memory
- split-second holding tank
- the information your senses are processing right now is held in
sensory memory
- less than a second
- George Sperling did experiments, showed iconic memory � a split-
second perfect photograph of a scene
- Other experiments indicate echoic memory � split-second memory for
sounds
- Most of the information in sensory memory is not encoded
- Selective attention determines which sensory messages get encoded
Short-term/Working Memory
- memories we are currently working with
- temporary, they usually fade in 10 to 30 seconds
- capacity is limited on average to around seven items
- Events are encoded as visual codes, acoustic codes, or semantic
codes
- Capacity can be expanded through chunking
- Mnemonic devices- memory aids, really examples of chunking
- Rehearsal or simple repetition can hold information in short-term
memory
Long-term Memory
- permanent storage
- capacity is unlimited
- memories can decay or fade
- stored in three different formats
Episodic memory � memories of specific events stored in a sequential series
of events
Semantic memory � general knowledge of the world stored as facts, meanings,
or categories rather than sequentially
Procedural Memory � memories of skills and how to perform them, These are
sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words.
Memories can also be implicit or explicit
Explicit � also called declarative � conscious memories of facts or events
Implicit � also called nondeclarative- unintentional memories that we might
not even realize we have
LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL
This theory explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the
memory was processed or thought about. Memories are neither short- nor long-
term. They are deeply (or elaboratively) processed or shallowly (or
maintenance) processed.
According to the levels of processing theory, we remember things we
spend more cognitive time and energy processing. This theory explains why
we remember stories better than a simple recitation of events and why, in
general, we remember questions better than statements.
RETRIEVAL
- getting information
- two different kinds: recognition and recall
There are several factors that influence why we can retrieve some memories
and why we forget others.
- Primacy effect � more likely to recall items presented at the
beginning of a list
- Recency effect- ability ot recall the items at the end of a list
- Context - semantic network theory
- Flashbulb memories
- Mood-congruent memory- ability to recall a memory is increased
when current mood matches mood when stored
- State-dependent memory-
Constructive Memory � false memories, leading questions can easily influence
us.
FORGETTING
One cause is decay, because we do not use a memory or connection to a memory
for a long time. Relearning effect indicates that it isn�t entirely gone
Another factor is interference, two types
- Retroactive interference � learning new information interferes
with the recall of older information
- Proactive interference � older information learned previously
interferes with the recall of information learned more recently
How memories are physically stored in the brain.
- the hippocampus is important in encoding new memories. Damage can
cause anterograde amnesia (can�t encode any new memories)
- long-term potentiation- studies of neurons indicate that they can
strengthen connections between each other through repeated firings, this
might be related to the connections we make in our long-term memory
LEARNING AND MEMORY
Learning - the process by which experience or practice results in a
relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior
Conditioning- the acquisition of specific patterns of behavior in the
presence of well-defined stimuli
Classical or Pavlovian conditioning - type of learning in which a response
naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different,
neutral stimulus
Operant or instrumental conditioning - type of learning in which behaviors
are emitted to earn rewards to avoid punishments
Unconditioned stimulus US - stimulus that invariably causes an organism to
respond in a specific way
Unconditioned response (UR) -response that takes place in an organism
whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs
Conditioned stimulus - originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an
organism when presented alone
Conditioned response - after conditioning, the response an organism produces
when only a conditioned stimulus is presented
Desensitization therapy - conditioning technique designed to gradually
reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation
Taste aversion - conditioned avoidance of poisonous food
Operant behavior - behavior designed to operate on the environment in a way
that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant
Reinforcer - a stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood
that the behavior will be repeated
Punisher - a stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood
that the behavior will be repeated
Law of effect - Thorndike�s theory that behavior consistently rewarded will
be �stamped in� as learned behavior
Positive reinforcer - Any event whose presence increases the likelihood that
ongoing behavior will recur
Negative reinforcer - Any event whose reduction or termination increases the
likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur
Avoidance training - Learning a desirable behavior to prevent an unpleasant
condition such as punishment from occurring
Response acquisition - �building phase� of the conditioning during which the
likelihood or strength of the desired response increases
Intermittent pairing - pairing the conditioned stimulus and the
unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials
Skinner box - box that is often used in operant conditioning of animals. It
limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the
desired response will occur
Shaping - reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior
Extinction - decrease in the strength or frequency of a learned response due
to failure to continue pairing the US and CS or the withholding of
reinforcement
Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after
the passage of time
Stimulus generalization - transfer of a learned response to different but
similar stimuli
Stimulus discrimination - learning to respond to only one stimulus and to
inhibit the response to all other stimuli
Response generalization - giving a response that is somewhat different from
the response originally learned to that stimulus
Primary reinforcer - reinforcer that is rewarding in itself, such as food,
water, and sex
Secondary reinforcer - reinforcer whose value is learned through association
with other primary or secondary reinforcers
Contingency - a reliable �if-then� relationship between two events such as a
CS and US
Blocking - prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus
even when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously
Schedule of reinforcement - in partial reinforcement, the rule for
determining when and how often reinforcers will be delivered
Fixed-interval schedule - reinforcement schedule that calls for
reinforcement of a correct response after a fixed length of time
Variable-interval schedule - reinforcement schedule in which a correct
response is reinforced after varying lengths of time after the last
reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule - reinforcement schedule in which the correct response
is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses
Variable-ratio schedule - reinforcement schedule in which a varying number
of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented
Cognitive learning - learning that depends on mental processes that are not
directly observable
Latent learning -learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior
change
Cognitive map - a learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be
called on to solve problems when stimuli in the environment change
Learning set - ability to become increasingly more effective in solving
problems as more problems are solved
Social learning theory - view of learning that emphasizes the ability to
learn by observing a model or receiving instructions, without firsthand
experience by the learner
Observational learning - learning by observing other people�s behavior
Vicarious reinforcement/punishment - performance of behaviors learned
through observation that is modified by watching others who are reinforced
or punished for their behavior
Token economy � a behavioral technique in which rewards for desired acts are
accumulated through tokens, which represent a form of money
Cognitive map � a mental image of where one is located in space
Cognitive approach � a way of learning based on abstract mental processes
and previous knowledge
Learning curve � a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of
material as the result of learning
State-dependent learning- the fact that material learned in one chemical
state is best reproduced when the same state occurs again
Transfer of training- a learning process in which learning is moved from one
task to another based on similarities between the tasks
Positive transfer � a transfer of learning that results from similarities
between two tasks
Negative transfer � an interference with learning due to differences between
two otherwise similar tasks
Information processing � the methods by which we take in, analyze, store,
and retrieve material
Schema � an organized and systematic approach to answering questions or
solving problems
Elaboration � the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to a
basic concept or other material to be learned so that it can be retrieved
more easily
Mnemonic devices � unusual associations made to material to aid memory
Principle learning � a method of learning in which an overall view
(principle) of the material to be learned is developed so that the material
is better organized
Chunking � putting things into clusters or �chunks� so that items learned
are in groups, rather than separate
Forgetting � an increase in errors when trying to bring material back from
memory
Overlearning � the process of learning something beyond one perfect
recitation so that the forgetting curve will have no effect; the development
of perfect retention.
Forgetting curve � graphic representation of speed and amount of forgetting
that occurs
Recall � the ability to bring back and integrate many specific learned
details
Recognition � the ability to pick the correct object or event from a list of
choices
Interference theory � the belief that we forget because new and old material
conflict with one another
Amnesia � the blocking of older memories and/or the loss of new ones
Short-term memory � the memory system that retains information for a few
seconds to a few minutes
Long-term memory � the memory system that retains information for hours,
days, weeks, months, decades
Sensory memory system � direct receivers of information from the
environment � for example, iconic, acoustic
Iconic memory � a very brief visual memory that can be sent to the STM
Acoustic memory � a very brief sound memory that can be sent to the STM
Eidetic imagery � an iconic memory lasting a minute or so that keeps
images �in front of the person� so objects can be counted or analyzed, also
called �photographic memory�
COGNITION LANGUAGE
Language is intimately connected to cognition
Elements
-phonemes
-morphemes
-syntax
Language Acquisition-
First stage � babbling
- babbling appears to be innate
- babies in this stage are capable of producing any phoneme from any
language
- babbling progresses into utterances of words as babies imitate the
words they hear caregivers say
Second stage � telegraphic speech
- combine words into simple commands
- begin to learn grammar and syntax rules during this stage
Controversy in language acquisition
-Behaviorists believe it is learned through operant conditioning and shaping
-Noam Chomsky � nativist theory of language acquisition, says humans are
born with a language acquisition device which allows them to
learn language rapidly. There may be a critical eriod for
learning language.
-Most psychologists now agree that there is some combination of the two
Language and Cognition
Benjamin Whorf, linguistic relativity hypothesis � the language we
use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking
THINKING AND CREATIVITY
Schemata � cognitive rules we use to interpret the world
Concepts- similar to schemats, rules that allow us to categorize and think
about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter
Prototypes � the most typical example of a particular concept
Images � mental pictures
Problem Solving
Algorithms � try every possible solution,, an algorithm is a rule that
guarantees the right solution by using a formula or foolproof method, may be
impractical
Heuristics �a rule of thumb,it limits the possible combinations drastically
Availability heuristic- judging a situation based on examples of similar
situations that come to mind initially.
Representativeness heuristic � judging a situation based on how similar the
aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.
Use of the heuristics can lead to specific problems in judgments.
Overconfidence, belief bias, belief perseverance
Impediments to Problem Solving-
- rigidity (mental set) tendency to fall into established thought
patterns
- functional fixedness � the inability to see a new use for an object
- not breaking the problem into parts
- confirmation bias � we tend to look for evidence that confirms our
beliefs
- Framing � the way a problem is presented
Creativity
- little correlation between intelligence and creativity
- difficult to define, originality, appropriateness, novel, somehow
fits the situation
- convergent thinking- thinking pointed toward one solution
- divergent thinking- thinking that searches for multiple possible answers
to a question - divergent thinking is more closely associated with
creativity.
DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT
Major issues, methods, prenatal development, infancy
I. Development involves the processes and stages of growth from
conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical,
cognitive, and social behaviors.
II. Major issues
A. Nature versus nurture-are we more affected by heredity or
environment?
B. Continuity versus discontinuity-is developmental change gradual, or
do we progress through distinct stages?
III. Methods
A. Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a
given point in time.
B. Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many
years.
C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied
periodically. D. Historical research revolves around
the particular historical circumstances of an era
IV. Prenatal development
A. Physical development
1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development
2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development
B. Genetics
1. Genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person.
2. Phenotype refers to the observable features of the person
C. Teratogens are disease agents, drugs, and other environmental agents
that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period
V. Infancy
A. Physical development
1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during
any other postnatal period.
2. Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and
replace reflexes.
B. Social development
1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated
the importance of contact comfort.
2. Attachment style
a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact, and
interaction with the caregiver after separation.
b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the
caregiver after separation.
3. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks
at about 18 months.
C. Cognitive development
1. Infants show a preference for face-like patterns
2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time
they are able to crawl.
Childhood and adolescence
I. Childhood
A. Physical development
1.more extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain
2 . Growth rate continues to decline
B. Social development
1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.
2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin to
become more important.
C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in
the areas of
1. Leaming
2.Language .
3. Thinking skills
II. Adolescence
B. Physical/ sexual development-puberty
B. Social development
1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.
2.Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more
intimate
C.. Cognitive development
1. Capability for logical, hypothetical, and introspective thinking develops
2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes develops-metacognition .
Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as
suicide, teen pregnancy, and eating disorders.
Adult and later years
I. Adulthood
A. Physical changes
1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1% a year) decline.
2. Women undergo menopause, with its hormonal and reproductive changes.
B. Social changes center around such issues as:
1. Mate selection
2. Parenting
3. Career selection
C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines
and others not.
1. Reaction time appears to decline.
2. Some adults show a decline in memory.
II.Later years
A. Physical changes
1, There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities
2.Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may
develop.
Social issues include:
1. Retirement
2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack
of mobility and declining health C. Cognitive declines are likely to
continue. .
Piaget and Kohlberg
I. Piaget's theory of cognitive development
A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months
1. Characteristics
a. Cognitive structures or schema are the means by which humans acquire and
apply knowledge about their world.
b. Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new
information.
c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the
face of
1- newly realized complexities in the environment.
2. Developmental achievements
a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they
gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively.
:b. object perman.ence is the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when --hidden from view.
B. Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years
1. Characteristics
a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a
perspective one has not experienced.
b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.
c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of
human action.
2. Developmental achievements
a. Symbolic representation and language
b. Readiness for operational thought
C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence
1. Characteristics
a. Use of simple logic
b. Use of simple mental manipulations
2. Developmental achievements
a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease
because of a change in form.
b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations can be
undone.
c. CIass inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical nature of
classification groups.;
D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood
1. Characteristics.
a. Hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
b. Propositional logic
2.Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual
tasks.
3. Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning
ability.
E. Critique of Piaget
1. Development may be more gradual than Piaget's stages imply.
2.The nature of Piaget's tasks may have underestimated cognitive skills of
children.
II. Kohlberg's theory of moral development
A. Preconventional level
1. Stage 1, characterized by avoidance of punishment
2. Stage 2, characterized by a desire to further one's own interests
B. Conventional level
1. Stage 3, characterized by living up to the expectations of others
2. Stage 4, characterized by a sense of conscience and "doing one's duty"
C. Postconventional level
1. Stage 5, characterized by an understanding that values and rules are
relative but generally need to be upheld
2. Stage 6, characterized by universal ethical principles
D. Critique of Kohlberg
1. Development may be more gradual and less sequential than Kohlberg's
stages imply.
2. Gilligan and others have criticized the theory for undervaluing
traditional female traits, which focus on interpersonal issues.
Erikson's psychosocial theory of development
I. Background
A. Erikson was trained in the Freudian tradition, and the first four stages
borrow from Freud's psychosexual stages.
B. The developmental task of each stage involves resolving the tension
between two opposite outcomes.
II. The stages
A Trust versus mistrust -infants
B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt -toddlers
C. Iniative versus guilt -young children
D. Industry versus inferiority -older children
E. Identity versus role confusion -adolescents
F. Intimacy versus isolation -young adults
G. Generativity versus stagnation -adults
H. Ego integrity versus despai r-elderly
III. Critique of Erikson
A. There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages.
B. The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist.
C. The theory may not reflect differences in personality development between
men and women.
DEVELOPMENT
Developmental Psychology- Study of the changes that occur in people from
birth through
old age.
Cross sectional study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining
groups
of subjects who are of different ages.
Cohort- Group of people born during the same period in historical time
Longitudinal study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining
the same
group of subjects two or more times, as they grow older.
Biographical or retrospective study- Method of studying developmental
changes by
reconstructing subject�s past through interviews and investigating the
effects of events that occurred in the past on current behaviors.
Prenatal- Development from conception to birth
Embryo-Developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months after conception
Fetus- Developing human between 3 months after conception and birth
Placenta- Organ by which an embryo or fetus is attached to its mother�s
uterus and that
nourishes it during prenatal development.
Critical period- Time when certain internal and external influences have a
major effect on
development; at other periods, the same influences will have little or no
effect
Neonate - Newborn baby
Rooting reflex- Reflex that causes a newborn to turn its head toward
something touching
its cheek and to grope around with its mouth
Swallowing reflex- Reflex that enables the newborn baby to swallow liquids
without choking
Grasping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to close their fists
around anything
that is put in their hands
Stepping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping
motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface
temperament- Term used by psychologists to describe the physical/emotional
characteristics of the newborn child and young infant; also referred to as
personality
Maturation- Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as
a function
of the passage of time
Developmental norms-Ages by which an average child achieves various
developmental milestones
Sensorimotor stage- In Piaget�s theory, the stage of cognitive development
between birth and 2 years of age, in which the indiv. Develops object
permanence and acquires the ability to form mental representations
Object permanence -The concept that things continue to exist even when they
are out of sight
Mental representation- Mental image or symbol used to think about or
remember an object, a person, or an event
Preoperational stage- In Piaget�s theory the stage of cognitive devel.
Between 2 and 7, in which the individual becomes able to use mental
representations and language to describe remember and reason
Egocentric- Unable to see things from another�s point of view
Formal operations- In Piaget�s theory, the state between 11 and 15, in which
the indiv.becomes capable of abstract thought
Holophrase- One-word sentences, commonly used by children under 2
Language acquisition device- An internal mechanism for processing speech
that is �wired In to� all humans
Imprinting- Form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals� the
newborn animal has a tendency to follow the first moving thing it sees after
it is born or hatched
Attachment- Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that
makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort
Autonomy- Sense of independence; desire not to be controlled by others
Socialization- Process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes
appropriate to their family and their culture
solitary play- A child engaged in some activity alone; the earliest form of
play
Parallel play- Two children playing side by side at the same activities,
paying little or no Attention to each other; the earliest kind of social
interaction between toddlers
Cooperative play- Two or more children engaged in play that requires
interaction
Sex role awareness- A little girl�s knowledge that she is a girl and a
little boy�s knowledge that he is a boy
Gender constancy- The realization by a child that gender cannot be changed
Sex role awareness- Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender
Sex-typed behavior- Socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for
boys and girls
Puberty- Onset of sexual maturation, with accompanying physical development
Menarche- First menstrual period
Imaginary audience- Elkind�s term for adolescents; delusion that they are
constantly being observed by others
Personal fable- Elkind�s term for adolescents; delusion that they are
unique, very important and invulnerable
Identity formation- Erikson�s term for the development of a stable sense of
self necessity
to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself
Identity crisis- Period of intense self-examination and decision making�
part of the process of identity formation
Peer group- A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one
another
emotional and social support
Clique- Group of adolescents with similar interests and strong mutual
attachment
Anorexia nervosa- A serious eating disorder that is associated with an
intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image
Bulimia- An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by
self induced vomiting
midlife crisis- A time when adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in
their jobs or personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift in career
or lifestyle
Midlife transition- According to Levinson, a process whereby adults assess
the past and
formulate new goals for the future
Menopause- Time in a woman�s life when menstruation ceases
Alzheimer�s disease- A disorder common in late adulthood that is
characterized by progressive losses in memory and changes in personality.
It is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brain�s structure and
function.
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Darwin�s theory of natural selection caused many psychologists to try and
explain all human behaviors through instincts, most agree that our behavior
is motivated by other biological and psychological factors.
Drive reduction theory � behavior is motivated by biological needs. A need
is one of our requirements for survival, a drive is our impulse to act in a
way that satisfies this need
Homeostasis- balanced internal state
Drives are primary and secondary-
Primary- biological needs like thirst and hunger
Secondary � learned drives like money
Drive reduction theory cannot explain all our motivations.
Arousal Theory- states that we seek an optimum level of excitement or
arousal, most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dobson law �high level of arousal may cause us to perform
well at easy tasks but poorly on difficult tasks.
Incentive Theory � sometimes behavior is pulled by a desire, incentives are
stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
Maslow�s Hierarchy of Needs � Abraham Maslow pointed out that not all needs
are created equal
Hunger Motivation � Why do we become hungry
Biological Basis � There are several biological factors
- Stomach sensation of being full
- Hypothalamus, specifically the lateral and ventomedial parts if
destroyed or stimulated determine hunger
- Set-point theory, says hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain
optimum body weight
Psychological factors
- external cues, attractiveness or availability of food
Garcia effect, learned taste aversions -
Culture and background
Eating Disorders � different cultures have drastically different rates of
eating disorders, rates are highest in the U.S. The three most common are:
Bulimia � Bulimics eat large amounts of food in
a short period of time and then get rid of the food by vomiting, excessive
exercise, or the use of laxatives. (Binge then Purge) Bulimics are obsessed
with food and their weight, the majority of bulimics are women
Anorexia Nervosa - Anorexics starve themselves to below 85 percent of
their normal body weight and refuse to eat due to their obsession with
weight, the vast majority are women
Obesity � People with diagnosed obesity are severely overweight,
often over 100 pounds, and the excess weight threatens their health. Obese
people typically have unhealthy eating habits rather than the food
obsessions of the other two disorders. Some people may also be genetically
predisposed to obesity
Social Motivation �
Achievement Motivation � Humans seem to be motivated to figure out our
world and master skills, sometimes regardless of the benefits of the skills
or knowledge. Studies involve looking at differences in how people set and
meet personal goals and go about acquiring new knowledge or skills.
Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation-
Extrinsic motivators- rewards that we get for accomplishments from
outside ourselves Ex. Grades, salary, etc.
Intrinsic motivators are rewards we get internally, such as
enjoyment or satisfaction
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds best to can give
managers insight into what strategies will be most effective. Extrinsic
motivators are effective for a short period of time but studies show that if
we want a behavior to continue, intrinsic motivation is most effective.
Management Theory � studies of management styles show two basic attitudes
that affect how managers do their jobs:
Theory X � managers believe that employees will work only if
rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment
Theory Y � managers believe that employees are internally motivated
to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
THEORIES ABOUT EMOTION �
James-Lange � They theorized that we feel emotion because of biological
changes, physiological change causes emotion
Cannon-Bard � They doubted this order, they demonstrated that similar
physiological changes correspond with drastically different emotional
states. Biological change and the cognitive awareness of the emotional
state occur simultaneously
Two Factor Theory � Stanley Schacter explains emotional experiences in a
more complete way than either previous. He pointed out that both our
physical responses and our cognitive labels combine to cause any particular
emotional response. Emotion depends on the interaction between two factors,
biology and cognition.
STRESS � stress and emotion are intimately connected concepts. The term
stress can refer to either certain life events (stressors) or how we react
to these changes in the environment (stress reactions)
Measuring stress � Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe designed one of the first
instruments to measure stress. Their social readjustment rating scale
(SRRS) measured stress using life-change units (LCUs). Any major life
change increases the score on the SRRS, a person who scored very high on the
SRRS is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a person with a low
score.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) � Hans Seyle describes the general
response in humans and animals to stressful events. There are three stages:
Alarm reaction � Heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other
body functions to muscles needed to react. The organism readies itself to
meet the challenge through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
Resistance � The body remains physiologically ready. Hormones are released
to maintain this state of readiness. If the resistance stage lasts too
long, te body can deplete its resources.
Exhaustion � The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological
state to normal. We can be more vulnerable to disease in this stage
especially if our resources were depleted by an extended resistance stage.
Various studies show that a perceived lack of control over events
exacerbates the harmful effects of stress, control over events tends to
lessen stress.
PERSONALITY Personality is the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that
characterize a person.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Sigmund Freud- personality was essentially set in early childhood,
psychosexual stages
Three parts to personality- id, ego, superego
Id contains instincts and energy. Two types of instincts:
Eros- life instinct; often evidenced as a desire for sex
Thanatos � the death instinct;; seen in aggression
Defense Mechanisms-
Carl Jung- proposed unconscious consists of two different parts
Personal unconscious- similar to Freud�s idea, contains painful memories and
thoughts the person does not wish to confront, complexes
Collective unconscious- passed down through the species, explains
certain similarities we see between all cultures, contains archetypes
(universal concepts we all share
Shadow- the evil side of personality
Persona- people�s creation of a public image
Alfred Adler � ego psychologist, downplayed the importance of the
unconscious, Thought people are motivated by the fear of failure,
inferiority; and the desire to achieve, superiority. Also known for his
work on the importance of birth order.
TRAIT THEORIES
Trait theorists believe we can describe people�s personalities by specifying
their main characteristics or traits.
Nomothetic approach. Theorists that believe that the same basic set of
traits can be used to describe all people�s personalities
Hans Eyesenck- believed could classify all people along introversion-
extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale
Raymond Cattell- 16PF (personality factor) 16 basic traits in all
people in varying degrees
A number of contemporary trait theorists believe that personality can be
described using the big five personality traits- extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, emotional
stability
The number of traits is derived from factor analysis- a statistical
technique that allows researchers to use correlations between traits.
Idiographic theorists- argue that each person should be seen in terms of
the few traits that best characterize their uniqueness
Gordon Allport- created a measure to identify each person�s �central
traits�
TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES /INTELLIGENCE Intelligence is often defined as a measure of general mental ability. Of
the standardized intelligence tests, those developed by David Wechsler are
among those most widely used. Wechsler defined intelligence as �the global
capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with the environment.� While psychologists generally agree with this
definition, they don�t agree on the operational definition of intelligence
(that is, a statement of the procedures to be used to precisely define the
variable to be measured) or how to accomplish its measurement.
Test Construction- To be useful must use established criteria of
standardization, reliability, and validity
� Standardization � process of making uniform & objective both testing
procedures & scoring procedures in order to obtain meaningful scores.
� Reliability � refers to the consistency of results. Different types:
- test and retest reliability � comparison of original test scores with
retest scores
- alternate form reliability � comparison of scores obtained on
alternate forms of a test
- split-half reliability � comparison of scores obtained on two halves
of tests
� Validity � refers to the extent that a test measures what it is supposed
to measure. Types include:
- content validity � the extent to which a test reflects a sample of
the behavior to be measured
- predictive validity � the extent to which a test can predict a
person�s behavior in another situation
- face validity � how appropriate a test �appears� to be, just from the
way the items read
- construct validity � how well a test assesses the construct for which
it was designed
- concurrent validity � how well the results of a test agree with those
of a new test or a different form of the test measuring for the same
construct
Measures of Intelligence. Several individual tests have been used to test
intelligence.
� The Binet-Simon intelligence scale, Developed by Frenchmean Alfred
Binet, was administered to children to evaluate their performance (mental
age) at a given chronological age, this measure called a mental quotient,
was used to evaluate a child�s learning potential.
� Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised the Binet scale, called
the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, it introduced the concept of
intelligence quotient
� David Wechsler developed the WAIS and the WISC, the revised forms of
these tests are still widely used. They contain two subscales, verbal and
performance.
Tests of aptitude and achievement. Group tests, (SAT) measure aptitude, or
the capacity to learn and achievement, what has been learned.
Ranges of intelligence scores. The two extremes of levels of intellectual
functioning are known as developmentally disabled and gifted.
� Those identified as mentally retarded or developmentally disabled
have IQ scores of 70 or below. Mild (50-70), moderate (35-50), severe (20-
35), profound (below 20). Causes include Down syndrome, a genetic disorder;
phenylketonuria, a metabolic disorder; and developmental disability due to
anoxia (lack of oxygen) during gestation.
� The gifted usually fall within the upper 2% to 3% of the IQ score
distribution (between 130 and 145). Louis Terman�s study of the gifted
found they possess high IQ but also superior potential in any of six areas;
general intelligence, specific aptitudes, creativity, leadership, performing
arts, and athletics.
Other concepts of intelligence-
� Spearman�s two-factor theory. Charles Spearman believed intelligence
was made up of two components; a g-factor (general intelligence) and s-
factors (a collection of specific cognitive intellectual skills)
� Thurstone�s primary mental abilities. L.L. Thurstone proposed seven
categories of primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, number,
spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, inductive
reasoning or general reasoning. Each ability could be measured separately
and the sum composes intelligence.
� Guilford�s three-dimensional model. Proposed three dimensions of
mental ability:
- operations- the act of thinking
- contents � terms used in thinking
- products of thinking � ideas
Each dimension is subdivided and the combinations can lead to over 100
separate factors.
� Fluid and crystallized intelligence. Raymond Cattell and John Horn
suggested that the g-factor should be divided into:
- Fluid intelligence- reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of
information processing. Involves such skills as those requiring spatial and
visual imagery and is generally believed to be much less affected by
experience and education than crystallized intelligence.
- Crystallized intelligence � concerns the application of knowledge to
problem solving. Includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal and
numerical skills & is generally believed to be affected by experience &
education.
� Vernon�s hierarchical model. Suggests that intelligence consists
of factors and skills arranged hierarchically. The cognitive factor, at the
top, is composed of two skills, verbal/academic and practical/mechanical
� Sternberg�s triarchic theory. Concerned with how intelligence is
used, theory deals with:
- componential intelligence, includes components essential to
acquisition of knowledge and use of problem-solving strategies
- experiential intelligence, reflected in creatively dealing with new
situations and combining different experiences in insightful ways
- contextual intelligence, reflected in the management of day-to-day
affairs
� Gardner�s seven intelligences, Howard Gardner divided intelligence
into seven abilities:
- linguistic ability
- logical-mathematical
- spatial ability
- musical ability
- bodily-kinesthetic ability
- interpersonal ability
- intrapersonal ability
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Defining abnormal behavior is difficult. It generally has the following
characteristics.
it is maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual
it is disturbing to others
it is atypical, not shared by many members of the population
it is irrational
Different schools of thought have different perspectives on the causes of
disorders
Perspective & Cause of disorder
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic:Internal, unconscious conflicts
Humanistic: Failure to strive toward one�s potential or being out of touch
with one�s feelings
Behavioral-Reinforcement history, the environment
Cognitive-Irrational, dysfunctional thoughts or ways of thinking
Sociocultural-Dysfunctional society
Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses. About 1 of every
100 people (1% of the population) is affected by schizophrenia. This
disorder is found throughout the world and in all races and cultures.
Schizophrenia affects men and women in equal numbers, although on average,
men appear to develop schizophrenia earlier than women. Generally, men show
the first signs of schizophrenia in their mid 20s and women show the first
signs in their late 20s. Schizophrenia has a tremendous cost to society,
estimated at $32.5 billion per year in the US (statistic from Brain Facts,
Society for Neuroscience, 1997).
Organic problems, biochemical imbalances, genetic predispositions
CATEGORIES OF DISORDERS
Anxiety Disorders � share the common symptom of anxiety
�Phobia
�generalized anxiety disorder, often referred to as GAD (previously
called anxiety state)
�obsessive-compulsive disorder
�posttraumatic stress disorder- involves flashbacks or nightmares
following a person�s involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling
even
Somatoform Disorders- when a person manifests a psychological problem
through a physiological symptom
�hypochondriasis
�conversion disorder
Dissociative Disorders
�psychogenic amnesia
�fugue
�multiple personality disorder
Mood or Affective Disorders- involves extreme or inappropriate emotions
�Major depression also known as unipolar depression- the most common
mood disorder. Key factor is the length of the depressive episode. Other
symptoms- loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of
interest in normally enjoyable activities, feelings of worthlessness
�Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) � experience depression only in
certain parts of the year, winter, treated with light therapy
�Bipolar disorder, also know as manic depression- involves both
depressed and manic episodes
Theories on causes
-Aaron Beck, cognitive theorist says comes from unreasonably
negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world, and their
futures- cognitive triad. Also attributional theory applies
-Has been found to correlate with feelings of learned helplessness
-Evidence suggests a biological component- low levels of serotonin
Schizophrenic Disorders � fundamental symptom is disordered, distorted
thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations. There
are four kinds
�Disorganized schizophrenia- evidence odd uses of language, make up
their own words (neologisms), make clang associations, inappropriate affect
or flat affect
�Paranoid schizophrenia- delusions of persecution
�Catatonic schizophrenia- engage in odd movements, stupor, move
jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason, waxy flexibility. Increasingly
rare
�Undifferentiated schizophrenia- exhibit disordered thinking but no
symptoms of one of the other types of schizophrenia
Causes- most popular ideas is biological, dopamine hypothesis, people
with schizophrenia have high dopamine levels. Also, enlarged ventricles and
brain asymmetries, also seems to be genetic predisposition
Who has schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses. About 1 of every
100 people (1% of the population) is affected by schizophrenia. This
disorder is found throughout the world and in all races and cultures.
Schizophrenia affects men and women in equal numbers, although on average,
men appear to develop schizophrenia earlier than women. Generally, men show
the first signs of schizophrenia in their mid 20s and women show the first
signs in their late 20s. Schizophrenia has a tremendous cost to society,
estimated at $32.5 billion per year in the US (statistic from Brain Facts,
Society for Neuroscience, 1997).
For more information on schizophrenia go to
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/schis.html
Personality Disorders For and exercise check out
www.rider.edu/users/suler/perdis.html
Antisocial personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder
Narcissistic
Histrionic
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
How is normality defined, and what are the major psychological disorders?
�Psychopathology refers to maladaptive behavior and to the scientific
study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
�Definitions of normality usually take into account the following;
subjective discomfort, statistical abnormality, social nonconformity, and
the cultural or situational context of behavior.
�Two key elements in judgments of disorder are that a person�s
behavior must be maladaptive and it must involve a loss of control.
�Major mental disorders include psychotic disorders, dementia,
substance related disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, somatoform
disorders, dissociative disorders, personality disorders, and sexual or
gender identity disorders.
�Traditionally, the term neurosis has been used to describe milder,
anxiety-related disorders. However, the term is fading from use.
�Insanity is a legal term defining whether a person may be held
responsible for his or her actions. Sanity is determined in court on the
basis of testimony by expert witnesses.
What is a personality disorder?
�Personality disorders are deeply ingrained maladaptive personality
patterns.
�Sociopathy is a common personality disorder. Antisocial people seem
to lack a conscience. They are emotionally unresponsive, manipulative,
shallow, and dishonest.
What problems result when a person suffers high levels of anxiety?
�Anxiety disorders, dissociative disorders, and somatoform disorders
are characterized by high levels of anxiety, rigid defense mechanisms, and
self-defeating behavior patterns.
�The term nervous breakdown has no formal meaning.
However, �emotional breakdowns� do correspond somewhat to adjustment
disorders.
�Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, panic
disorder with or without agoraphobia, agoraphobia (without panic), specific
phobias, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorders, post-traumatic
stress disorder, and acute stress disorder.
�Dissociative disorders may take the form of dissociative amnesia,
dissociative fugue, or dissociative identity disorder.
�Somatoform disorders center on physical complaints that mimic
disease or disability. Four examples of somatoform disorders are
hypochondriasis, somatization disorder, somatoform pain disorder, and
conversion disorders.
How do psychologists explain anxiety-based disorders?
�The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious conflicts as the
cause of disabling anxiety.
�The humanistic approach emphasizes the effects of a faulty self-
image.
�The behaviorists emphasize the effects of previous learning,
particularly avoidance learning.
�Cognitive theories of anxiety focus on distorted thinking, judgment,
and attention.
What are the general characteristics of psychosis?
�Psychosis is a break in contact with reality that is marked by
delusions, hallucinations, sensory changes, disturbed emotions, disturbed
communication, and, in some cases, personality disintegration.
�An organic psychosis is based on known injuries or diseases of the
brain. Other problems of unknown origin are termed functional psychoses.
�Some common causes of organic psychosis are untreated syphilis,
poisoning, drug abuse, and dementia (especially Alzheimer�s disease).
How do delusional disorders differ from other forms of psychosis?
�A diagnosis of delusional disorder is almost totally based on the
presence of delusions of grandeur, persecution, infidelity, romantic
attraction, or physical disease.
�The most common delusional disorder is paranoid psychosis.
Paranoids may be violent if they believe they are threatened.
What forms does schizophrenia take? What causes it?
�Schizophrenia involves a split between thought and emotion,
delusions, hallucinations, and communication difficulties.
�Disorganized schizophrenia is marked by extreme personality
disintegration and silly, bizarre, or obscene behavior. Social impairment
is usually extreme.
�Catatonic schizophrenia is associated with stupor, mutism and odd
postures. Sometimes violent and agitated behavior also occurs.
�In paranoid schizophrenia (the most common type), outlandish
delusions of grandeur and persecution are coupled with psychotic symptoms
and personality breakdown.
�Undifferentiated schizophrenia is the term used to indicate a lack
of clear-cut patterns of disturbance.
�Current explanations of schizophrenia emphasize a combination or
early trauma, environmental stress, inherited susceptibility, and
abnormalities in the brain.
�Environmental factors that increase the risk of schizophrenia
include viral infection or malnutrition during the mother�s pregnancy, birth
complications, early psychological trauma and a disturbed family
environment.
�Heredity is a major factor in schizophrenia.
�Recent biochemical studies have focused on the brain transmitter
dopamine and its receptor sites.
�The dominant explanation of schizophrenia, and other problems as
well, is the stress vulnerability model.
What are mood disorders? What causes depression?
�Mood disorders primarily involve disturbances of mood or emotion,
producing manic or depressive states.
�Long-lasting, though relatively moderate, depression is called a
dysthymic disorder. Chronic though moderate swings in mod between
depression and elation are called a cyclothymic disorder. Reactive
depressions are triggered by external events.
�Bipolar disorders combine mania and depression. In a bipolar I
disorder the person alternates between mania and depression. In a bipolar
II disorder, the person is mostly depressed, but also has periods of mild
mania.
�The problem known as major depressive disorder involves extreme
sadness and despondency but no evidence of mania.
�A major mood disorder accompanied by psychotic symptoms is called an
affective psychosis.
�Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) which occurs during the winter
months, is another common form of depression. SAD is typically treated with
phototherapy.
�Biological, psychoanalytic, cognitive, and behavioral theories of
depression have been proposed. Heredity is clearly a factor in
susceptibility to mood disorders. Research on the causes and treatment of
depression continues.
Why do people commit suicide? Can suicide be prevented?
�Suicide is statistically related to such factors as age, sex, and
marital status.
�In individual cases, the potential for suicide is best identified by
a desire to escape, unbearable psychological pain, frustrated psychological
needs, and a constriction of options.
�Suicide can often be prevented by the efforts of family, friends,
and mental health professionals.
What does it mean to be �crazy�? What should be done about it?
�In Western law, the insanity defense evolved from the McNaghten
rule.
�Insanity is closely related to claims of diminished capacity or
claims that a person had an irresistible impulse.
�Inconsistencies in the application of the insanity defense have
fueled debate about its validity.
�Thomas Szasz has raised questions about the nature of abnormal
behavior and its relationship to personal responsibility and civil rights.
�Public policies concerning treatment of the chronically mentally ill
continue to evolve as authorities try to strike a balance between providing
help and taking away personal freedoms.
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Mental illnesses - brought on by a variety of causes, therefore therapists
must use a variety of methods to treat them.
Research shows that about two-thirds of adults who undergo psychotherapy
show marked improvement or recover however about the same number improve
without treatment also.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES
-also known as insight therapies, based on Freud�s ideas
-goal is to uncover the material in the unconscious mind
-psychoanalysis
-hypnosis
-free association
-dream analysis
-symptom substitution
-transference
HUMANISTIC THERAPY
-emphasize peoples� positive capacities, ability to self-actualize
-Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy, Unconditional positive regard
-Gestalt therapy
-Existential therapies
COGNITIVE THERAPY
-attempts to directly manipulate the client�s thinking and reasoning
processes
-Rational-emotive therapy -Attributional style
-Beck cognitive triad
GROUP THERAPY -family therapy -self-help
groups -encounter groups
SOMATIC THERAPY
-The most common somatic therapy is drug therapy or psychopharmacology
-electroconvulsive therapy, shock treatment -
psychosurgery
How do psychotherapies differ? How did psychotherapy originate?
� Psychotherapies may be classified as insight, action, directive,
nondirective, or supportive therapies, and combinations of these.
� Therapies may be conducted either individually or in groups, and
they may be time limited.
� Primitive approaches to mental illness were often based on belief in
supernatural forces.
� Trepanning involved boring a how in the skull.
� Demonology attributed mental disturbance to demonic possession and
prescribed exorcism as the cure.
� In some instances, the actual cause of bizarre behavior may have
been ergot poisoning.
� More humane treatment began in 1793 with the work of Philippe Pinel
in Paris.
Is Freudian psychoanalysis still used?
� Freud�s psychoanalysis was the first formal psychotherapy.
Psychoanalysis seeks to release repressed thoughts and emotions from the
unconscious.
� The psychoanalyst uses free association, dream analysis, and
analysis of resistance and transference to reveal health-producing insights.
� Some critics argue that traditional psychoanalysis receives credit
for spontaneous remissions of symptoms. However, psychoanalysis has been
shown to be successful for many patients.
� Brief psychodynamic therapy (which relies on psychoanalytic theory
but is brief and focused) is as effective as other major therapies.
What are the major humanistic therapies?
� Client-centered (or person-centered) therapy is nondirective and is
dedicated to creating an atmosphere of growth.
� Unconditional positive regard, empathy, authenticity, and reflection
are combined to give the client a chance to solve his or her own problems.
� Existential therapies, such as Frankl�s logotherapy, focus on the
end result of the choices one makes in life. Clients are encouraged through
confrontation and encounter to exercise free will and to take responsibility
for their choices.
� Gestalt therapy emphasizes immediate awareness of thought and
feelings. Its goal is to rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into
connected wholes and to help clients break through emotional blockages.
� Media psychologists, telephone counselors, and cybertherapists may,
on occasion, do some good. However each has serious drawbacks, and the
effectiveness of telephone counseling and cybertherapy has not been
established.
� Therapy by videoconferencing shows more promise as a way to provide
mental health services at a distance.
What is behavior therapy?
� Behavior therapists use various behavior modification techniques
that apply learning principles to change human behavior.
� In aversion therapy, classical conditioning is used to associate
maladaptive behavior (such as smoking or drinking) with pain or other
aversive events in order to inhibit undesirable responses.
How is behavior therapy used to treat phobias, fears, and anxieties?
� Classical conditioning also underlies systematic desensitization, a
technique used to overcome fears and anxieties. In desensitization, gradual
adaptation and reciprocal inhibition break the link between fear and
particular situations.
� Typical steps in desensitization are: Construct a fear hierarchy,
learn to produce total relaxation, and perform items on the hierarchy (from
least to most disturbing).
� Desensitization may be carried out with real settings, or it may be
done by vividly imagining the fear hierarchy.
� Desensitization is also effective when it is administered
vicariously � that is, when clients watch models perform the feared
responses.
� In some cases, virtual reality exposure can be used to present fear
stimuli in a controlled manner.
� A new technique called eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR) shows promise as a treatment for traumatic memories and stress
disorders. At present, however, EMDR is highly controversial.
What role does reinforcement play in behavior therapy?
� Behavior modification also makes use of operant principles, such as
positive reinforcement, nonreinforcement, extinction, punishment, shaping,
stimulus control, and time out. These principles are used to extinguish
undesirable responses and to promote constructive behavior.
� Nonreward can extinguish troublesome behaviors. Often this is done
by simply identifying and eliminating rein forcers, particularly attention
and approval.
� To apply positive reinforcement and operant shaping, symbolic
rewards known as tokens are often used. Tokens allow immediate
reinforcement of selected target behaviors.
� Full-scale use of tokens in an institutional setting produces a
token economy. Toward the end of a token economy program, patients are
shifted to social rewards such as recognition and approval.
Can therapy change thoughts and emotions?
� Cognitive therapy emphasizes changing thought patterns that underlie
emotional or behavioral problems. Its goals are to correct distorted
thinking and/or teach improved coping skills.
� In a variation of cognitive therapy called rational-emotive behavior
therapy (REBT), clients learn to recognize and challenge their own
irrational beliefs.
Can psychotherapy be done with groups of people?
� Group therapy may be a simple extension of individual methods, or it
may be based on techniques developed specifically for groups
� In psychodrama, individuals enact roles and incidents resembling
their real-life problems. In family therapy, the family group is treated as
a unit.
� Although they are not literally psychotherapies, sensitivity and
encounter groups attempt to encourage positive personality change. In
recent years, commercially offered large-group awareness trainings have
become popular. However, the therapeutic benefits of such programs are
questionable.
What do various therapies have in common?
� To alleviate personal problems, all psychotherapies offer a caring
relationship, emotional rapport, a protected setting, catharsis,
explanations for the client�s problems, a new perspective, and a chance to
practice new behaviors.
� Many basic counseling skills underlie a variety of therapies. These
include listening actively, helping to clarify the problem, focusing on
feelings, avoiding the giving of unwanted advice, accepting the person�s
perspective, reflecting thoughts and feelings, being patient during
silences, using open questions when possible, and maintaining
confidentiality.
How do psychiatrists treat psychological disorders?
� Three medical, or somatic, approaches to treatment are
pharmacotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and psychosurgery. All
three techniques are controversial to a degree because of questions about
effectiveness, and side effects.
� Community mental health centers seek to avoid or minimize mental
hospitalization. They also seek to prevent mental health problems through
education, consultation, and crisis intervention.
How are behavioral principles applied to everyday problems?
� Cognitive techniques can be an aid to managing personal behavior.
� In covert sensitization, aversive images are used to discourage
unwanted behavior.
� Thought stopping uses mild punishment to prevent upsetting thoughts.
� Covert reinforcement is a way to encourage desired responses by
mental rehearsal.
� Desensitization pairs relaxation with a hierarchy of upsetting
images in order to lessen fears.
How could a person find professional help?
� In most communities, a competent and reputable therapist can be
located with public sources of information or through a referral.
� Practical considerations such as cost and qualifications enter into
choosing a therapist. However, the therapist�s personal characteristics are
of equal importance.
Do cultural differences affect counseling and psychotherapy?
� Many cultural barriers to effective counseling and therapy have been
identified.
� Aware therapists are beginning to seek out the knowledge and skills
needed to intervene successfully in the lives of clients from diverse
cultural backgrounds.
� The culturally skilled counselor must be able to establish rapport
with a person from a different cultural background and adapt traditional
theories and techniques to meet the needs of clients from non-European
ethnic or racial groups.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY -The scientific study of the ways in which the thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors of one individual are influenced by the real, imagined, or
inferred behavior or characteristics of other people.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
How does group membership affect individual behavior?
� Humans are social animals enmeshed in a complex network of social
relationships. Social psychology studies how individuals behave, think, and
feel in social situations.
� Culture provides a broad social context for our behavior. One�s
position in groups defines a variety of roles to be played.
� Social roles, which may be achieved or ascribed, are particular
behavior patterns associated with social positions. When two or more
contradictory roles are held, role conflict may occur. The Stanford prison
experiment showed that destructive roles may override individual motives for
behavior.
� Positions within groups typically carry higher or lower levels of
status. High status is associated with special privileges and respect.
� Group structure refers to the organization of roles, communication
pathways, and power within a group. Group cohesiveness is basically the
degree of attraction among group members.
� Norms are standards of conduct enforced (formally or informally) by
groups. The autokinetic effect has been used to demonstrate that norms
rapidly form even in temporary groups.
What unspoken rules govern the use of personal space?
� The study of personal space is called proxemics. Four basic spatial
zones around each person�s body are intimate distance (0 to 18 inches),
personal distance (1 � to 4 feet), social distance (4 to 12 feet), and
public distance (12 feet or more).
How do we perceive the motives of others and the causes of our own behavior?
� Attribution theory is concerned with how we make inferences about
behavior. A variety of factors affect attribution, including consistency,
distinctiveness, situational demands, and consensus.
� The fundamental attributional error is to ascribe the actions of
others to internal causes. Because of actor-observer differences, we tend
to attribute our own behavior to external causes.
� Self-handicapping, involves arranging excuses for poor performance
as a way to protect one�s self-image or self-esteem.
Why do people affiliate?
� The need to affiliate is tied to additional needs for approval,
support, friendship, and information. Additionally, research indicates that
affiliation is related to reducing anxiety and uncertainty.
� Social comparison theory holds that we affiliate to evaluate our
actions, feelings, and abilities. Social comparisons are also made for
purposes of self-protection and self-enhancement.
What factors influence interpersonal attraction?
� Interpersonal attraction is increased by physical proximity
(nearness), frequent contact, physical attractiveness, competence, and
similarity. A large degree of similarity on many dimensions is
characteristic of mate selection
� Self-disclosure occurs more when two people like one another. Self-
disclosure follows a reciprocity norm: Low levels of self-disclosure are met
with low levels in return, whereas moderate self-disclosure elicits more
personal replies. However, overdisclosure tends to inhibit self-disclosure
by others.
� According to social exchange theory, we tend to maintain
relationships that are profitable � that is, those for which perceived
rewards exceed perceived costs.
� Romantic love has been studied as a special kind of attitude. Love
can be distinguished from liking by the use of attitude scales. Dating
couples like and love their partners but only like their friends. Love is
also associated with greater mutual absorption between people.
� Adult love relationships tend to mirror patterns of emotional
attachment observed in infancy and early childhood. Secure, avoidant, and
ambivalent patterns can be defined on the basis of how a person approaches
romantic and affectionate relationships with others.
� Evolutionary psychology attributes human mating patterns to the
differing reproductive challenges faced by men and women since the dawn of
time.
What have social psychologists learned about conformity, social power,
obedience, and compliance?
� In general, social influence refers to alterations in behavior
brought about by the behavior of others. Conformity to group pressure is a
familiar example of social influence
� Virtually everyone conforms to a variety of broad social and
cultural norms. Conformity pressures also exist within smaller groups. The
famous Asch experiments demonstrated that various group sanctions encourage
conformity.
� Groupthink refers to compulsive conformity in group decision
making. Victims of groupthink seek to maintain each other�s approval, even
at the cost of critical thinking.
� Social influence is also related to five types of social power:
reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert
power.
� Obedience to authority has been investigated in a variety of
experiments, particularly those by Milgram. Obedience in Milgram�s studies
decreased when the victim was in the same room, when the victim and subject
were face to face, when the authority figure was absent, and when others
refused to obey.
� Compliance with direct requests is another means by which behavior
is influenced. Three strategies for inducing compliance are the foot-in-the-
door technique, the door-it-the-face approach, and the low-ball technique.
� Recent research suggests that, in addition to excessive obedience to
authority, many people show a surprising passive compliance to unreasonable
requests.
How does self-assertion differ from aggression?
� Self-assertion, as opposed to aggression, involves clearly stating
one�s wants and needs to others. Learning to be assertive is accomplished
by role-playing, rehearsing assertive actions, over-learning, and using
specific techniques, such is the �broken record�.
What is a social trap?
� A social trap is a social situation in which immediately rewarded
actions have undesired effects in the long run.
� One prominent social trap occurs when limited public resources are
overused, a problem called the tragedy of the commons.
PSYCHOLOGY ON THE NET
* Social Psychology Network � A comprehensive site with many links to
information about social psychology. http://www.wesleyan.edu/spn/
* Social Psychology Humor � Links to cartoons that relate to principles of
social psychology. http://miavxl.muohio.edu/~shermarc/p324cart.html
TERMS
Primacy effect - early information about someone weights more heavily that
later information in influencing one�s impression of that person
Self-fulfilling prophecy - process in which a person�s expectation about
another elicits behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation
Stereotype - set of characteristics presumed to be shared by all members of
a social category
Attribution theory - theory that addresses the question of how people make
judgments about the causes of behavior
Fundamental attribution error - tendency of people to overemphasize personal
causes for other people�s behavior and to under emphasize personal causes
for their own behavior
Defensive attribution - tendency to attribute our successes to our own
efforts or qualities and our failures to external factors
Just-world hypothesis - attribution error based on the assumption that bad
things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people
Proximity - how close two people live to each other
Exchange - concept that relationships are based on trading rewards among
partners
Equity - fairness of exchange achieved when each partner in the relationship
receives the same proportion of outcomes to investments
Intimacy - the quality of genuine closeness and trust achieved in
communication with another person
Attitude - relatively stable organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavior
tendencies directed toward something or someone-the attitude object
Self-monitoring - tendency for an individual to observe the situation for
cues about how to react
Prejudice - an unfair, intolerant, or unfavorable attitude toward a group of
people
Discrimination - an unfair act or series of acts taken toward an entire
group of people or individual members of that group
Frustration-aggression theory - theory that under certain circumstances
people who are frustrated in their goals turn their anger away from the
proper, powerful target toward another, less powerful target it is safer to
attack
Authoritarian personality - a personality pattern characterized by rigid
conventionality, exaggerated respect for authority, and hostility toward
those who defy society�s norms
Cognitive dissonance - perceived inconsistency between two cognitions
Social influence - process by which others individually or collectively
affect one�s perceptions, attitudes, and actions.
Culture - All the goods, both tangible and intangible, produced in a society
Cultural truism - Belief that most members of a society accept as self-
evidently true
Norm - A shared idea ore expectation about how to behave
Cultural norm - A behavioral rule shared by an entire society
Conformity - Voluntarily yielding to social norms, even at the expense of
one�s own preferences
Compliance - Change of behavior in response to an explicit request from
another person or group
Obedience - Change of behavior in response to a command from another person,
typically an authority figure
Deindividuation - Loss of personal sense of responsibility in a group
Altruistic behavior - Helping behavior that is not linked to personal gain
Bystander effect - Tendency for an individual�s helpfulness in an emergency
to decrease as the number of bystanders increases.
Risky shift -Greater willingness to take risks in decision making in a group
than as independent individuals
Polarization - Shift in attitudes by members of a group toward more extreme
positions than the ones held before group�s discussion
Great person theory -Theory that leadership is a result of personal
qualities and traits that qualify one to lead others
Industrial/organization psychology - Division of psychology concerned with
the application of psychological principles to the problems of human
organizations, especially work organizations
Hawthorne effect - Principle that subjects will alter their behavior because
of researcher�s attention and not necessarily because of any specific
experimentation
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