22/1 Lectures Notes
American Foreign Policy (Pages 638–639)
A. The words George Washington spoke in his farewell address in 1796 advising America
to “steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world” guided
the American policy of isolationism for about 100 years.
B. Then expansionism became the American way as America settled the country from
coast to coast. When the frontier no longer existed, America began to look overseas to
expand its trade and compete for political influence.
C. In the mid-1800s, American merchants traded with China and hoped to expand to
other parts of the world. Matthew Perry’s mission to Japan opened trade between
Japan and the United States.
1. In 1853 President Millard Fillmore sent Commodore Perry on a mission to Japan
to ask the Japanese to open up their ports to American ships.
2. In 1854 when Perry returned, the Japanese signed the Treaty of Kanagawa. It
opened two Japanese ports to United States ships.
Discussion Question: 1
Why was the United States interested in trading with China and then Japan?
The United States wanted to expand trading relationships overseas. Asia had raw
materials such as silk, spices, and tea that the United States did not have. Asia offered
a new market where the United States could sell its manufactured products.
II. An Age of Imperialism (Pages 639–641)
A. The age of imperialism was a time during the late 1800s and early 1900s when
powerful European nations looked to create large empires for their political and
economic expansion. European nations competed with one another for power and
influence in Asia and Africa.
B. Some Americans wanted the United States to build an empire after the Civil War,
when interest in political and economic expansion developed. Secretary of State
William H. Seward pictured an American empire that dominated the Caribbean,
Central America, and the Pacific.
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Did You Know? Today Alaska is home to many Native |
American groups. In fact Alaskan Native Americans represent
about 6 percent of the state’s residents. There are 20 Native
American languages spoken in Alaska.
C. In 1867 Seward signed a treaty with Russia to buy Alaska, a Russian colony, for $7.2
million. This purchase, although criticized by many as “Seward’s Folly,” was a major
step toward making his vision a reality.
1. Alaska was twice the size of Texas but a barren, icebound region.
2. When gold was discovered in the 1890s, people rethought their criticisms.
3. In 1912 Alaska became a United States territory.
D. Some Americans felt a sense of mission while being imperialistic. They felt that bringing
American culture and religion to people who were “uncivilized” would lift them up
and help them. America especially had a strong interest in Latin America.
E. Keeping European influence out of Latin America was one factor that led to the signing
of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. As a result, the United States benefited and signed
treaties with a number of Latin American countries.
F. In 1889 James G. Blaine, the secretary of state, invited Latin American countries to
attend a Pan-American Conference in Washington, D.C. The Pan-American Union
resulted to share information among member nations.
G. The United States built its naval power during this time of expansion and imperialism.
By the early 1900s, it had the naval power to stand behind its expanded role in foreign
affairs. When Congress authorized construction of the first steel-hulled warships in
1883, the navy changed from sails and wood to steam power and steel hulls.
Discussion Question: 2
Why did the United States host the Pan-American Conference in 1889?
It hoped to strengthen its economic and political ties among its Latin American neighbors.
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22/2: Class Notes
I. Hawaii (Pages 644–646)
A. Secretary of State William Seward wanted to build America’s empire in the Pacific.
The United States acquired the following Pacific regions:
1. In 1867 the two small Pacific islands of Midway
2. Hawaii, as a territory, in 1900
3. American Samoa in 1900
B. Interest in the Hawaiian Islands grew. American trade with Hawaii had begun in the
1790s. Christian missionaries arrived in 1820 and established schools, created a written
Hawaiian alphabet, and translated the Bible into Hawaiian. American whaling merchants
settled there, too. Americans and Europeans also brought diseases that devastated the
population.
C. The sugar industry grew, and Hawaii was more and more under American influence.
In the 1830s, an American firm introduced sugarcane. Missionaries and traders bought
land and established sugar plantations. Immigrants from Japan, China, and other
Pacific islands came to work in the fields. America took control of most of the land
and businesses, and influenced Hawaiian politics.
D. Tariffs greatly affected the sugar industry. In 1885 Hawaiian sugar exported to the
United States was allowed to enter the country without tariffs. As a result, exports
soared and profits increased. In 1886 in return for renewal of the trade agreement, the
United States acquired a naval base at Pearl Harbor. In the early 1890s, Congress
revised the tariff laws and eliminated the exemption for Hawaiian sugar. Hawaiians
dropped the price to sell their sugar in order to compete with American sugar, but
their sugar exports to the United States dropped and sugar growers faced ruin.
E. Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii wanted Hawaiians to regain economic control of their
islands, so she took away powers that American sugar planters held. But the
American sugar planters successfully revolted against her. The queen left under
protest in 1893. White planters set up a provisional, or temporary, government.
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Did You Know? Grover Cleveland was the twenty-second |
and twenty-fourth president of the United States. He was the only
president to serve two terms that were not in succession.
turn
F. In 1898 Congress approved the annexation of Hawaii, and in 1900 Hawaii became a
United States territory after a long, hard battle.
1. John Stevens, the chief American diplomat in Hawaii, recognized Hawaii’s new
government and asked Washington to seek a treaty to add Hawaii to the United
States.
2. Although President Benjamin Harrison signed the treaty, the Senate did not ratify
it before he left office in 1893.
3. His successor, President Grover Cleveland, opposed annexation and withdrew the
treaty from the Senate after he learned that most Hawaiians did not support the
revolt.
4. A powerful group of Americans and their Hawaiian allies pushed for annexation,
which was approved under President William McKinley.
G. The United Stated gained the islands of Samoa located about 3,000 miles south of
Hawaii. In the 1830s, United States missionaries landed in Samoa. In 1878 Samoa gave
America special trading rights and land to build a naval station at the port of Pago
Pago. Great Britain and Germany also wanted trading rights.
1. In 1899 the United States, Great Britain, and Germany divided up the Samoan
islands without consulting the Samoans.
2. The United States and Germany split Samoa between them. Great Britain withdrew
from the area in return for rights on other Pacific islands.
Discussion Question: 1
Why do you think many Hawaiians and Asian immigrants in Hawaii opposed
annexation?
Answers will vary, but should include the idea that they did not want to be controlled
by the United States.
II. China and the Open Door (Page 647)
A. In the late 1890s, European powers controlled sections of China where they had
special rights and powers.
1. Japan held the island of Formosa (present-day Taiwan) and parts of the Chinese
mainland.
2. Germany held the Shandong area in east-central China.
3. Great Britain and France held several provinces.
4. Russia moved into Manchuria and other areas in northern China.
B. The United States did not want to be squeezed out of the China trade, so the secretary
of state, John Jay, proposed an Open Door Policy. It stated that each foreign nation
could trade freely in the other nation’s sphere of influence.
C. The Boxer Rebellion was a violent uprising against “foreign devils” in China. A secret
martial-arts society known as the Boxers besieged the capital city of Beijing. The rebellion
lasted for two months, during which many died and hundreds more were trapped in
Beijing. In August foreign troops defeated the Boxers and the siege ended.
D. Hay proposed a second Open Door Policy to which other foreign powers responded.
It stressed the importance of maintaining China’s independence and respecting its
borders. As compensation for the rebellion’s damage, other foreign nations forced
China to sign new trade treaties.
Discussion Question" 2
Why did foreign nations carve out spheres of influence in China by the late 1890s?
They wanted to gain control of China’s resources and its markets. Because China had internal warring factions, it was less able to resist the influence of the foreign powers.)
III. Japan (Page 648)
A. Japan wanted to expand its power in Asia. It clashed with Russia and the United
States and ignored the Open Door Policy.
B. The Russo-Japanese War occurred in the early 1900s when Japan clashed with Russia
over Manchuria, which was rich in natural resources.
1. On February 8, 1904, Japan attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in southern
Manchuria and scored several more victories that destroyed the Russian fleet.
2. By the spring of 1905, both countries were eager to make peace, so President
Theodore Roosevelt arranged for the leaders to meet.
3. In September 1905, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth. It recognized
Japan’s control of Korea, and Japan pledged to halt its expansion.
C. Japan emerged from the war as the strongest naval power in the Pacific. It challenged
the United States for control.
D. Relations between the United States and Japan deteriorated. During the Russo-
Japanese War, Japanese immigration to the United States, especially California,
increased. Americans resented the Japanese, and an anti-Asian feeling grew as
Americans felt the Japanese took away their jobs because they would work for less
pay.
1. In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that Asian students attend
separate schools. The Japanese protested and felt that an 1894 treaty had been
violated.
2. President Roosevelt ordered the San Francisco board to change its policy and
persuaded Japan to sign the Gentlemen’s Agreement in which Japan promised
to restrict emigration. Japan resented the agreement.
E. In 1907 Roosevelt sent the “Great White Fleet,” 16 battleships on a cruise around the
world to show off America’s navy. When the fleet returned in 1909, the United States
and Japan had resolved many of their differences.
Discussion Question: 3
What caused Japan and the United States to clash in the early 1900s?
Japan ignored the Open Door Policy and challenged the United States for control in the Pacific region. The Japanese resented the treatment they received in the United States as a result of the San Francisco Board of Education’s order, which the Japanese felt violated a prior treaty that protected their rights. They also resented the Gentlemen’s Agreement to restrict their emigration to the United States.
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22/3: Lecture Notes
I. The Cuban Rebellion (Pages 649–652)
A. José Martí led the Cuban people in a new revolt against Spanish rule in 1895.
Martí’s men burned sugarcane fields and destroyed buildings. The Spanish
herded Cubans into camps to separate them from the rebels and to break their
morale. Thousands died of starvation and disease, and there was major property
damage in the revolution.
B. Americans were concerned about the Cuban citizens. They called for the
government to do something. Business people were worried about their loss of
trade and investments in Cuba. The government was worried about a rebellion so
close to the United States. President Grover Cleveland opposed American
involvement. When William McKinley became president in March 1897, he hoped
the conflict would be settled peacefully.
C. The revolution eventually led to the Spanish-American War through a series of
events.
1. Yellow journalism, or sensationalism and false reporting by the newspapers,
increased American pro-war sentiment.
2. In January 1898, President McKinley sent the battleship Maine into Havana’s
harbor to protect the lives and property of American citizens in Cuba.
3. While in Havana, the Maine exploded, killing 266 sailors. American papers and
then the government blamed Spain. Spain denied responsibility, and evidence
later indicated that the explosion may have been accidental.
4. America sent a note to the Spanish demanding a truce and an end to the
brutality against Cubans.
D. The fighting actually began in the Philippines, a Spanish colony in the Pacific.
These islands were a base for the Spanish fleet.
1. On May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey and his naval fleet launched a
surprise attack on the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. Most of the Spanish fleet
was destroyed.
2. American troops and Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo captured the city of
Manila.
3. The Filipino rebels seized the main island of Luzon, declared independence,
and created a democratic republic. They had struggled for years to become
independent from Spain.
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Did You Know? Although African Americans had fought in almost all United States wars, it was not until July 1948 that President Truman signed Executive Order 9981, which forbade segregation in the armed forces. It would be many more years after that before integration was a reality. |
4. The United States did not know what to do with the islands and gave no
immediate support to their independence.
E. Fighting in Cuba began when a Spanish fleet entered the harbor of Santiago on
May 19. Several days later, American naval forces blockaded the coast and
trapped the Spanish in the harbor.
F. An American land force of about 17,000 arrived and joined forces with the
Cubans. Theodore Roosevelt led the First Regiment of the United States Cavalry
volunteers known as the Rough Riders. On July 1, the Rough Riders and the
African American soldiers of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries joined the Battle of
San Juan Hill. Americans captured San Juan Hill. In another battle two days later,
the Spanish fleet tried to break out of Santiago and was completely destroyed.
This ended Spanish resistance in Cuba.
G. On August 12, the Spanish signed an armistice, or peace agreement ending the
war. Secretary of State John Jay called it “a splendid little war,” but it was not so
splendid.
1. The war lasted fewer than four months. About 400 Americans were killed or
died from wounds.
2. Over 5,000 more Americans died from tropical diseases such as yellow fever
and malaria.
3. The 10,000 African Americans who fought in the war still faced discrimination.
H. After the war, the United States turned its attention to the Spanish colony of
Puerto Rico. American troops landed in late July and took control of the island.
Question: 1
Why did Secretary of State John Jay refer to the Spanish-American War as “a splendid little war”?
Answers will vary, but should include the idea that it was short––fewer than four months––and the United States was victorious. The Americans captured San Juan Hill and blockaded the port of Santiago so the Spanish fleet could not leave. Then in two battles, the Americans destroyed the fleet. Spain realized that they could no longer control Cuba, gave up resistance, and signed an armistice to end the war.
II. Acquisitions (Pages 652–654)
A. Signing the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, ended the war and most of
the Spanish empire was dissolved.
1. Cuba became a protectorate of the United States, or a country that is
independent but controlled by another.
2. Puerto Rico and Guam in the Pacific became territories of the United States.
3. Spain surrendered the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.
B. America planned how to handle Cuba as a protectorate. Business leaders did
not want to jeopardize their interests or see Cuba weakened politically.
Congressional leaders did not think Cuba was ready for complete self-
government.
1. American troops remained.
2. In 1901 the United States gave Cuba full independence but required that a list
of terms be included in their constitution known as the Platt Amendment.
a. Cuba could not make treaties with other nations.
b. America controlled a naval base at Guantánamo Bay.
c. America had the right to interfere in Cuban affairs if Cuba’s independence
was threatened.
C. In 1900 the United States set up a new government in Puerto Rico under the
Foraker Act. It controlled the new government. In 1917 the Jones Act made
Puerto Rico a territory of the United States and granted American citizenship to
Puerto Ricans.
D. Anti-imperialists and other groups opposed the acquisition of the Philippines.
They fought approval of the treaty. The imperialists won, and the Senate ratified
the Treaty of Paris on February 6, 1899.
1. In February 1899, Aguinaldo’s rebel forces in the Philippines revolted against
American rule. The Filipinos suffered huge casualties. At least 200,000 soldiers
and civilians died. The conflict was difficult for Americans. In March 1901, when
Aguinaldo was captured, the fighting ended.
2. By the summer of 1901, the United States transferred authority from a military
to a civilian government headed by William Howard Taft. The Philippines did
not gain full independence until 1946.
Question: 2
What effect did the Platt Amendment have on Cuba?
Cuba could not make treaties with other nations, America could lease a naval base at Guantánamo Bay, and America had the right to intervene in Cuban affairs if Cuba’s independence was threatened. Cuba did not actually have
full independence, and therefore the Cubans resented the amendment and
American interference. The amendment was revoked in 1933.
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22/4: Lectures Class Notes
I. Panama (Pages 656–658)
A. The United States had dreamed of building a canal across Panama. The country is
an isthmus, or a long narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land and
bordered by water on both sides. A canal would shorten the time and distance that
ships would travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, eliminating the long sea
voyage around South America.
B. A French company had acquired a lease from Colombia to construct a canal across
Panama in 1879. Panama was part of Colombia at the time. French efforts failed.
C. In 1901 the United States bought the lease from the French for $40 million. In 1903 the
United States government proposed a treaty with Colombia that gave the United
States a 99-year lease on a strip of land across Panama. Colombia rejected the treaty
because it wanted more money for the land.
D. In 1903 a United States warship arrived at the port of Colón, Panama. Encouraged by this
support, the Panamanians revolted and declared their independence from Colombia.
Colombia sent forces to stop the revolt, but the United States turned them back.
E. The United States recognized the new Republic of Panama on November 6. A treaty
with Panama gave the United States a 10-mile strip of land across the country and the
right to build a canal on this land known as the Canal Zone.
F. Building the canal was a great engineering feat. Thousands of workers labored for
10 years to carve a path through dense jungle and over mountains.
1. They created a huge human-made lake and built locks to raise and lower ships to
different water levels.
2. A major obstacle was disease. The region was a damp, tropical jungle, hot and
swarming with mosquitoes that carried yellow fever and malaria. An army doctor,
Colonel William Gorgas, went to Panama to fight and eventually eliminate yellow
fever and reduce the cases of malaria.
3. The Panama Canal opened on August 15, 1914. The Ancon, a cargo ship, made the
first trip. The canal reduced shipping costs, helped extend American naval power,
and guaranteed a strong American presence in Latin America. Many Latin
Americans though were bitter over how the Canal Zone was acquired, and
their relationship with the United States remained difficult.
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Did You Know? The Panama Canal remained under United States supervision until midnight on December 31, 1999, when the United States honored a treaty signed by President Carter in 1977 and passed control of the Panama Canal to the Republic of Panama. |
Discussion Question
Panama is one of the major crossroads of the world because of the Panama Canal. Why
is this so?
Ships from many nations of the world pass through the Panama Canal. It makes the
cities of Panama busy. It transports thousands of ships a year making the trip from ocean to
ocean shorter and faster.
II. Policing the Western Hemisphere (Pages 658–660)
A. President Theodore Roosevelt believed that the United States should respond to foreign
crises with military action. Often he said “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” so
he became known for his “big stick” approach.
B. The Caribbean region was unstable. Roosevelt worried that European powers would
intervene. He developed a policy known as the Roosevelt Corollary. This was added
to the Monroe Doctrine as a result of economic troubles in Venezuela in 1902 and the
fall of the government of the Dominican Republic in 1903. The president responded
as a police officer in Latin America intervening in the affairs of nations when they
seemed unstable.
C. The Roosevelt Corollary was first used in the Dominican Republic in 1905 when the
United States took control of the country’s finances. It was used again in 1906 when
the United States sent troops to Cuba to stop the revolt there.
D. William Howard Taft, Roosevelt’s successor, modified America’s foreign policy by
intervening in other nations’ affairs when American business interests were threatened.
This policy was called dollar diplomacy, linking American business interests to
diplomatic interests.
E. Dollar diplomacy helped American investments in Latin America grow.
1. The money built roads, railroads, and harbors.
2. The money stimulated trade and benefited both Latin America and the United
States.
3. Large American companies held great power and controlled the politics of some
nations.
4. Military intervention followed dollar diplomacy if business interests were threatened.
In 1912 marines were sent to Nicaragua to restore peace when a revolt
threatened business interests. This action increased anti-American feelings.
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Discussion Question
Why did Taft use dollar diplomacy as a foreign policy in Latin America?
He believed that American investments would bring stability to troubled areas of the
world and also bring profit and power to the United States. He was willing to intervene
if American business interests were at risk.
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II. Relations with Mexico (Pages 660–661)
A. Mexico had a series of civil wars in the early 1900s that threatened American investments
and led to American military intervention.
1. In 1911 Francisco Madero led a revolt to overthrow Porifirio Díaz, a brutal dictator.
2. Madero was overthrown and killed by General Victoriano Huerta two years later.
He favored the wealthy and foreign interests like Díaz.
3. Civil war broke out after Huerta took power. Woodrow Wilson did not recognize
the Huerta regime.
B. Wilson followed a foreign policy based on moral principles. He believed that the
United States had a duty to “teach the South American republics to elect good men.”
He believed in the ideals of democracy. His policy faced a major challenge under
Huerta. Wilson authorized arm sales to Venustiana Carranza, Huerta’s rival.
C. Carranza took power after Huerta was forced to flee. In April 1914, Huerta’s troops
arrested some American sailors, and Wilson ordered United States troops to take the
port of Veracruz. This strengthened Carranza’s position, and he was able to take
power and overthrow Huerta. American troops then withdrew.
D. In another uprising by Francisco “Pancho” Villa in January 1916 against Carranza,
16 Americans were shot because of American support of Carranza. Villa and his rebels
then crossed into New Mexico, burned the town of Columbus, and killed 18 Americans
there.
1. President Wilson sent General John J. Pershing and a large force into Mexico to
capture Pancho Villa.
2. The Mexicans protected Villa, so Pershing never captured him, although the troops
pursued Villa across Mexico for almost a year.
3. In 1917 Americans withdrew from Mexico with war raging in Europe.
Discussion Question
Why did American actions in Mexico cause resentment?
The Mexicans saw Americans intervening in their civil wars as a way for the United States
to influence their policies, and Mexico did not like it. In fact, American intervention almost
caused a war.
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