ADOL 630 – Lesson 1 - Content
Introduction to Educational Administration
Introduction to Educational Administration is designed to provide students
with an overview of some of the many topics pertaining to school
administration. This course contains many of the subjects and topics taught
in other administrative courses that students will take in completing
administrative certification: curriculum, school law, school finance,
personnel management, and organizational theory. The purpose of the course
is to provide students with an introduction to the many facets of
administration and to prepare students for the additional knowledge that
they will gain from other administrative courses.
Students will notice that many of the topics first addressed in a chapter
often appear in subsequent chapters. This is because it is difficult, if not
impossible, to isolate a particular theory in administration from other
topics relating to that field.
Development of Administrative Theory Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify and briefly discuss the two major theories associated with the
administration of an organization.
2. Become familiar with many of the aspects of leadership, including some of
the more common types of administrative models that attempt to measure
leadership potential.
3. Identify at least 3 leaders in management theory, and briefly describe
each theory.
4. Correctly identify 4 examples of management tasks and 4 leadership tasks
of a school administrator, after reflecting on management and leadership.
Our text suggests that almost every action that an administrator or
educational makes rests on a theory. Educational administration is one area
of education that abounds with theories. For the past three decades, schools
have attempted to examine and mirror many of the basic management principles
found in business and industry. The 1982 book In Search of Excellence:
Lessons from America’s Best Run Companies (Peters & Waterman), which was
written basically for business and industry, was a regular text in many
school administration courses. Numerous other works dealing with both
education and business management are introduced and mentioned in this
course. This chapter examines the many different theories directly affecting
educational institutions and their administrators.
Administrative Theories: Part I
The scientific management theory, which was developed by Frederick Taylor at
the beginning of the 20th century, focused on the improvement of a worker’s
performance based on sound scientific principles. Ours summarizes Taylor’s
principles into (1) scientific job analysis, (2) selection of personnel, (3)
management cooperation, and (4) functional supervising. Taylor’s scientific
management theory fits nicely into today’s educational framework. His theory
provides for a clear delineation of authority, responsibility, separation of
planning from operations, incentive schemes for workers to improve their
production, and task specialization.
Henry Fayol, a French industrialist, developed the theory known as
administrative management. According to Fayol, a manager’s duties center on
planning, organizing, commanding, and coordinating activities, and
controlling performance. Fayol developed 14 principles of management:
specialization of labor (also known as division of work, authority,
discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of
individual interests, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, order,
equity, personnel tenure, initiative, and esprit de corps). Fayol’s view on
management appears to be somewhat authoritarian in nature and completely
management centered.
The Hawthorne Studies resulted in what is sometimes called the Hawthorne
Effect. Three separate studies or experiments were done at the General
Electric plant in New York during the 1920s, centering on how to increase
the productivity of workers. Researchers were surprised at their results and
finally postulated the theory that working conditions are not as important
to a worker as is the idea regarding his/her worth to the institution.
Because of these studies, management began to focus much more on the social
conditions of a job, including the concept of the relationship between a
worker and the organization.
Behavioral Science Approach
There are a number of individuals who have developed their theories based on
the individual, not the organization. These behavioralists include Bakke,
Barnard, and Argyris. Their theories concerned the relationship between the
individual and the organization. Abraham Maslow, possibly the most famous
behavioralist, developed his Hierarchy of Needs. His theory suggested a
pyramidal structure of human needs that every individual seeks to have met.
These needs move from basic physiological needs, such as the need for air,
food, and water, to safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and the need
for self-actualization. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is important in that
organizations must help to provide employees with the ability to satisfy
their needs so that they can become more productive employees.
Perhaps less known than Maslow but equally important to the behaviorist
theory was Douglas McGregor, who suggested 2 what he called “theories”
concerning the relationship between an individual in a supervisory job and
workers. In his theory, known as McGregor’s theory of X and Y, McGregor
suggests that a Theory X manager is one who thinks that all workers are
lazy, that they have no interest in the success of the organization, and
that they have a strong dislike for work. To achieve any productivity, a
manager or supervisor must control and threaten workers. Theory X suggests
that workers must continually be directed and, further, that they actually
desire the constant supervision of an authority figure. They must constantly
be prodded and have no desire to see the organization succeed. Theory Y
suggests the opposite, namely, that workers want the company or organization
to succeed and that physical or mental effort in work is natural and is
desirable by employees. Some 21 years after McGregor’s publication of his
theory of X and Y, professor William Ouchi developed his Theory Z, which is
considered to be a cornerstone of Japanese industry. This theory suggests
that to obtain maximum productivity from workers, they must be given a sense
of ownership in the organization. They must feel that they are important and
worthy and, further, that their ideas and suggestions are considered by
management.
Frederick Herzberg is famous for developing what he called a two-factor
theory of motivation. He distinguished factors know as hygiene factors –
factors that cause or prevent job dissatisfaction – and motivation factors –
factors that cause job satisfaction. Hygiene factors include company
policies and administration, working conditions, and salary. According to
Herzberg, these factors do not contribute to job satisfaction, but the
absence of them causes job dissatisfaction. Motivation factors allow for a
sense of job satisfaction among workers. Motivating factors include a sense
of achievement, recognition by the organization, and the potential for
growth and advancement in the organization.
Rensis Likert is known as a participatory management theorist. He devised a
4-part system of stages of management consisting of exploitative,
authoritarian, benevolent, and participative. The Likert system further
developed McGregor’s theory of X and Y and approaches Ouchi’s theory Z in
suggesting that the best managers are participative: They include workers in
the decision-making process.
Administrative Theories: Part II Leadership
The job description of almost any school administrator should possibly be
written to address leadership and management objectives. School
administration requires considerable expertise in both of these areas;
however, the two are not interchangeable. All leaders can manage, but not
all managers can lead. Leadership can be defined as the interpersonal
relationship between an individual and other members of a group that tends
to make all group members work to achieve the organization’s goals. Two
groups of leaders in management theory are the teams of Blake and Mouton and
Hershey and Blanchard. Although originally developed for business and
industry, both leadership models are often used in discussions of the theory
of educational leadership.
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed a leadership theory based on two
criteria – concern for production and concern for people. Known as the Blake
Mouton managerial grid, the two developed a comprehensive questionnaire, the
results of which place an individual on a 9 x 9 grid based on concern for
production and concern for people. There are 81 possible placement
positions, although most individuals taking the questionnaire often locate
themselves by their answers near the (5,5) area. Particular emphasis is
directed at 5 of those positions: (9,1; 1,9; 5,5; 1,1; and 9,9. The “team”
score is the (9,9) level, which signifies a high concern for people and for
production. A (1,1) score, known as “impoverished leadership,” suggests that
the employee has little, if any, concern for production or for people. A
(1,9) score is known as “produce or perish.” This individual tends often to
serve ineffectively as a leader in that he/she has little, if any, skill in
dealing with people. The purpose of the questionnaire-based program is to
allow individuals to determine their own personal management style.
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard developed the situational leadership
theory, in which they suggested that leadership and the type of leadership
imposed on subordinates depends on the subordinates’ or followers’ maturity,
the task at hand, and the existing relationship between the leader and
followers. The premise for situational leadership rests on the ability of
the leader to first identify the “maturity level” of the employee and then
to consider the degree of difficulty of the task. Once a determination has
been made regarding the maturity level, the leader will then use one of 4
progressive styles known as “telling,” “selling,” “participating,”
and “delegating.” As the maturity level of the employee rises, the
communication level between the leader and the employee increases from one
of purely “directing” the employee to one of simply delegating duties and
power to the employee.
Systems Theory
One of the newer or more modern ways of viewing schools is through the
systems theory approach. This text defines a system as a set of interrelated
elements or objects that function as a unit to achieve a specific objective.
The systems theory approach, when used in education, is based on looking at
the entire organization or system while being mindful of the
interrelatedness of all of the parts of the organization. To better explain
the idea of systems theory used in education, consider the following
example. There are first three components of a systems theory approach to
understanding an organization: (1) input to the organization (in this
example, students); a transformation process by the organization (educating
those students); and the output (a higher achieving, more educated
student.). The purpose of feedback is to improve the quality of the “output”
of the organization. This allows the organization to continually produce a
better product. Peter Senge, author of The Fifth Discipline and Schools That
Learn, developed the concept of the systems theory and how that business
principle can be applied to improving education.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the
readings will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where
possible, Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics
presented in this chapter.
1. http://www.education-world.com/a_admin/admin190.shtml
2. http://www.rtis.com/nat/user/jfullerton/review/learning.htm
Introduction to Organizational Structure Organizational Structure
Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify and describe the differences between direct and indirect
authority.
2. List and describe how 10 of Deming’s 14 points of total quality
management (TQM) can affect the organizational governance of public
education.
This chapter discusses the types of organizational structure found in most
organizations. Components creating the basis of an organization’s structure
are broken down into components of job specialization, departmentalization,
chain of command, authority and responsibility,
centralization/decentralization, line and staff authority, and span of
management. The importance of this chapter is that one (i.e., a potential
school administrator) must understand the design of the organization before
he/she can successfully administer it.
Public education is entirely dependent on job specialization in that most
parts of an educational system are separated into different groups or
divisions, such as elementary – middle-secondary education, administrators –
teachers, certified staff – classified staff, and so on. Systems not using
job specialization tend to use such alternatives as job rotation, job
enlargement, and job enrichment. Although our text suggests that job
rotation is used in larger school districts, it is occasionally used in
smaller systems. The idea behind job rotation in school administration is
that every principal or school administrator has certain strengths and
qualities that others may lack. By routinely transferring school principals
after a predetermined time period, a school system can match a particular
school’s need with an administrator who has expertise in that particular
area. Job enlargement gives an employee the ability to develop additional
capabilities and strengths by performing additional duties not originally
assigned to him/her. Finally, job enrichment improves employees by allowing
them the opportunity to make administrative decisions that are normally made
at a higher level in the system. This in effect mirrors Maslow’s “self-
actualization” or Ouchi’s ownership theory discussed previously.
Departmentalization is the process of dividing an organization into blocks
or groups of individuals, assignments, structures, and so on, that have
common characteristics and functions. In the classic sense,
departmentalization is usually thought of as the division of the curricula
offerings of schools into English, mathematics, social sciences, and the
like. The degree to which a school or school system uses departmentalization
is often dependent on the size of the organization. Departmentalization
offers both advantages and disadvantages to any organization. The concept in
education allows teachers and others to specialize in particular subjects
and fields. In a large high school setting, academic teachers may even
specialize into specific fields of subject matter. The major disadvantage
with departmentalization is that the process often results in employees (in
this case, teachers) becoming so absorbed in the development and needs of
the specialized department that they lose sight of the needs of the
organization.
Almost all bureaucratic-type organizations are pyramidal in design. At the
top of the pyramid is the individual with authority over the organization
and who is considered to be ultimately responsible for the success or
failure of the organization. Normally, the individual holding this position
has direct authority over 3 or 4 employees who also hold authority over
employees below them. One aspect of this concept is that in the pyramidal
structure, the number of employees directly supervised by an administrator
decreases as the position increases up in the organization.
Organizational Structure Continued Many school systems, as well as other
organizations, have created a schematic sometimes known as an organizational
chart. The chart (similar to the one in our text on p. 48) often uses two
types of lines to indicate lines of direct authority and lines of indirect
authority. Unbroken, solid lines represent direct lines of authority; dashes
or hyphens indicate indirect authority. Direct lines of authority indicate
that an individual is directly supervised by a superior. In an indirect
authority relationship, an employee is directly supervised by someone but,
to some extent, is also responsible to another person in authority. A school
system is an excellent example of this description. A special education
teacher would be directly supervised by a school principal but would be
indirectly supervised by the director of special education. Another example
would be the authority relationship between a classroom teacher and a
central officer supervisor of instruction. The teacher is directly
supervised by the school principal but, to some extent, is also indirectly
supervised by one or more other administrators.
This bureaucratic model was introduced by sociologist Max Weber, who
suggested that all organizations have as core principles the division of
labor, rules that govern the organization, a hierarchical organization
relating to supervisory and administrative duties, and the need for all
administrators to completely maintain an impersonal attitude toward all
subordinates. This type of model is steadily being replaced due to the many
problems associated with it to a model that emphasizes the need to increase
organizational production through employee job satisfaction. McGregor’s
theory X and Y, Ouchi’s theory Z, and other models identified in chapter one
have begun to move organizations away from a purely hierarchal type
organizational structure to a more participatory management model. Education
in particular has greatly increased participatory management practices over
the past 10 to 20 years. These participatory decision- making initiatives
have provided teachers with the power to select textbooks, have input into
the school’s curriculum, and have a voice in the employment of
administrators as well as other teachers.
In the 1970s, a new management system or theory known as management by
objectives (MBO) was introduced. Although our text does not really discuss
MBO here, the MBO concept developed by Peter Drucker was quickly adopted by
business, industry, and education. It still occupies a prominent place in
educational administration. Both the employees and management can view MBO
as a system in which specific performance objectives of an organization are
determined. Once the objectives of the organization have been established
the organization including the administration and employees can devise ways
to achieve those objectives.
Total quality management (TQM) is yet another theory of management that has
found its way into the educational system. TQM, founded by Edward Deming,
looks at schools as a business. The concept of TQM is to view students as
both employees and as the product, teachers as managers, and parents as the
customers. To keep the business in operation (the school), the management
and owners of the business (school administrators and teachers) must do
everything possible to produce a better product (the student). The text
reviews Deming’s 14 principles that organizations can put into place to
maximize productivity in the workplace.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the
readings will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where
possible, Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics
presented in this chapter.
1. http://economics.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-mbo.htm
2. http://www.isixsigma.com/me/tqm
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ADOL 630 - Lesson 2: Organizational Culture and Motivation
Introduction to Organizational Culture
Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify and list 3 common attributes of “healthy” and “sick” schools.
2. Describe and define the differences between “organizational
culture” and “organizational climate.”
3. Understand the reasons for the resistance to organizational
change.
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture can be defined as the beliefs, norms, routines, and
attitudes of an organization. Every organization, every school, and every
school system has developed an organizational culture based on the
collective feelings, history, and personal attitudes of those members making
up the organization. It has been said that the culture of an organization
can be compared to the personality of an individual. The text lists 6
distinct characteristics of organizational culture: (1) behavioral
regularities, (2) norms, (3) dominant values, (4) philosophy, (5) rules, and
(6) feelings. These identified areas are collectively responsible for how
the organization is viewed and valued by those outside the organization.
Organizational culture has a tendency to resist change for a number of
reasons. New members or employees of the organization tend to be selected at
least in part on their ability to “fit in” with existing employees and
members. Once employed as a member of the organization, an employee tends to
adopt the culture and beliefs of other culture members through a variety of
experiences. Our text suggests that because of organizational heroes, the
rites and rituals of an organization, and the communication networks formed
by the organization, a culture tends to remain static and resistant to
change. Heroes of an organization may include the actual leaders or founding
members of the organization as well as those administrators or employees who
have made significant accomplishments for the organization.
Rites and rituals are events that also reinforce the organizational culture.
They may include awards, dinners, designations as “employee of the month,”
and so on. Communication networks are formal and informal subgroups that
tend to preserve the status quo of an organization.
Organizational Culture: Part I Changing the Culture of an Organization
Quite often, it becomes the duty and goal of an individual leader or group
to change the culture of an organization. This change is usually required
due in part to the fact that the organization has been stagnant to such an
extent that it has not kept up with the progress of other groups and
organizations. The process of culture change is often difficult and causes
discomfort to members of the organization. In the public school setting, it
becomes the duty of the school principal to determine if and when the school
is in need of change. This is perhaps one reason why newly appointed school
administrators hesitate to make dramatic changes during their first year of
administrative duty and spend that first year in assessing the organization,
talking to school and community members, and reviewing the history of the
school or group.
One of the primary duties of a school leader, in this case the school
principal, is to bring about change. He/she is ultimately responsible for
the growth and development of the school or organization. To accomplish this
task, our text offers the following points or suggestions that often can aid
the administrator in the accomplishment of this task:
• There may be both internal and external conditions affecting the school or
organization that present to a majority of group members the need for
organizational change. In a school setting, this might include increased
pressure from the state or federal government to improve test scores,
student attendance, and a pattern of declining enrollment, or there is a
perceived need to improved teacher competence.
• A dramatic or sudden change in the membership of the organization or
school. An example of this could be the restructuring of the school to
incorporate students and parents from other schools due to school
consolidation.
• A decreased level of respect or support for the organization or school by
members of the school or organization. We learned from Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs that a feeling or sense of self-worth and respect is essential.
• Organization, there is a dramatic decrease in the level of performance.
• Someone in the organization – a leader and, hopefully, the school
administrator- must supply and share a vision for the organization. The
vision is critical in that it communicates or depicts what the organization
can become. Along with a vision comes the necessity for an action plan that
can move the organization to its desired goal.
Organizational Culture
The authors of our text reviewed some of the findings of Peters and
Waterman’s In Search of Excellence. That best seller, which was written in
1982, was and still is considered to be one of the more important writings
about organizational success. The authors of the book interviewed hundreds
of successful organizations and business leaders in an effort to identify
traits common to all. Following are some of their findings:
• A bias toward action was the first attribute listed. Peters and Waterman
found that successful organizations are never satisfied with simply the
status quo. Successful organizations, like successful schools, continually
seek to improve themselves.
• Successful organizations continually remain close to their customers. The
authors discovered that these organizations often look to the customers
themselves for input as to how their products could be improved. In
education, this could imply that schools should seek input from parents and
students as to how to better improve education for all students.
• A sense of entrepreneurship at successful organizations is also a
characteristic. These organizations allow and encourage employees to try
approaches to improve and develop products. This point is particularly
meaningful in education. “If you keep on doing what you have always been
doing, you can expect to keep on getting what you have always been getting”
suggests that schools should also seek out new ways and approaches to
improving student performance.
• Productivity through people suggests that an organization or school can
only be as productive as the employees of the school. To improve employee
productivity, a sense of shared decision making and ownership must be
present. In schools, this is accomplished through shared decision making,
whereby teachers have the chance to provide input into the organization’s
decision making
• “Management by Wandering Around” (MBWA). Perhaps one of the most quoted
parts of In Search of Excellence is this phrase. Peters and Waterman found
that leaders who have moved outside of their executive offices to spend more
time with employees and customers often head successful organizations. In a
school setting, this means that the principal should move from his/her
office to walk around the school; visit classrooms; and talk to students,
parents, teachers, and other school employees. These activities provide the
school leader with necessary information about the workings of the school
and, at the same time, communicate that the principal is interested and
committed to improving the entire school.
Organizational Culture: Part II
Organizational Climate
One distinguishable characteristic that separates a successful school from
an unsuccessful school is the school climate, which simply means the
impressions one gets from visiting or working with a school or school
community. Although one may use some of the many adjectives found in the
text to describe a climate of a school, the two more commonly used words
are “open” and “closed.” A school or organization with an open climate is
one in which employees as well as the administration are engaged with the
day-to-day business of educating students and where communication channels
among the administration, teachers, and students are free and accessible. A
school with a closed climate is one in which there is little, if any, two-
way communications from the school administration with teachers. Instead the
communication tends to be only downward from the administration to
employees. A closed climate is also one in which much of the communication
between staff members consists of critical remarks about the administration
and other teachers and employees. The terms healthy school and sick school
used by the Comprehensive Assessment of School Environments (CASE) are also
used as means of describing a school’s climate. In a healthy school, the
entire school team of administrators, teachers, and support staff work
cooperatively to provide students with educational success. A sick school is
one with an ineffective inefficient administration, a faculty with agenda
other than providing students a successful learning experience, and unhappy
parents.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the
readings will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where
possible, Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics
presented in this chapter.
1. http://www.mapnp.org/library/org_thry/culture/culture.htm
2. http://www.toolpack.com/culture.html
3. http://www.accel-team.com/communications/busComms_05.html
Introduction to Motivation
This is a relatively short chapter that looks at the concept of motivation
and how motivation is achieved within an organization.
Motivation Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify and be able to discuss 4 components of the basic
expectancy model.
2. Be able to discuss the theory(ies) about what causes motivation in
the workplace.
3. Be able to identify and discuss the similarities and differences
between the motivation-hygiene theory and Alderfer’s ERG theory.
Motivation
Motivation can be defined as the drive or stimulus that makes us perform all
normal day-to-day tasks. However, we note that many people tend to be much
more motivated than others. Some people seem to be almost “driven” and place
a tremendous amount of energy into the completion of a task. Our text
defines motivation as “those processes within an individual that stimulate
behavior and channel it in ways that should benefit the organization as a
whole” (p. 110). The text further suggests that motivation is comprised of 3
distinct parts: effort, persistence, and direction. Effort refers to the
degree of intensity to which an employee or individual puts forth to achieve
a particular goal. Probably teachers, parents, and employers more commonly
use the word effort when discussing a student or employee who seemingly is
not doing all that is needed to achieve success.
Persistence has to do with the sustained amount of time and patience spent
in trying to achieve a particular goal. We all know of the student or
employee who, after making a brief attempt to accomplish a goal and, upon
discovering that accomplishing the goal will take a larger degree of effort
than first anticipated, will move his/her attention to another task.
Direction, when used in this context, refers to the quality of the effort
spent on attempting to achieve a goal. Quality used in this type of example
would perhaps be a better word than direction in that the authors are
pointing out the fact that motivation is dependent on the effort spent or
exerted, the persistence of the employee, and the quality (or direction) of
his/her work.
Lyman Porter took Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and developed the concept into
a Needs Satisfaction Questionnaire (NSQ). This assessment has repeatedly
shown that one of the biggest unmet needs among teachers is the need for the
feeling of self-esteem and feeling of achievement.
Frederick Herzberg also based most of his work on Maslow’s theory. Herzberg
developed the motivation-hygiene theory, which examines both job satisfiers,
or motivators, and job dissatisfiers, or hygiene factors. Herzberg’s theory
suggests that job dissatisfiers tend to make employees function only at
minimal levels of performance. His theory suggests that only with the
incorporation or inclusion of motivation factors can an employer improve job
performance. Thomas Sergiovanni applied Herzberg’s theory to public schools
through a number of studies. Sergiovanni found that the job of teaching is
both satisfying and dissatisfying to teachers. He pointed out that many of
the mundane tasks of teaching are unsatisfying and, further, that these
experiences often overshadow many of the more satisfying or motivating
aspects of the job. Sergiovanni’s theory has continued to be supported
through additional studies on the aspect of teaching by other researchers,
who provide additional evidence for the need by administrators to provide
teachers additional motivation factors where possible.
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ADOL 630 - Lesson 3: Leadership and Decision Making
Introduction to Leadership
The idea of leadership is one of the more complex concepts surrounding any
organization. What is a leader? Can one develop leadership ability, or is a
person simply born with this ability? What does leadership mean in the area
of school administration? This is an extremely important chapter in that
every school administrator must develop leadership ability as well as
his/her own individual leadership style.
Leadership Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define the difference between management and leadership.
2. Identify and describe at least 4 types and styles of leadership.
3. Answer these questions: Are there specific types of relationships
between a leader and his or her subordinates? Are these
relationships important in the organization reaching its
desired objective?
4. Explain if schools need management, leadership, or both.
Management Versus Leadership
The previous lessons dealt with the management of an organization, which is
sometimes called systems management. To be effective, schools and school
systems must have effective management and creative leadership abilities. An
administrator must have the ability to make management decisions regarding
resource allocations as well as decisions regarding personnel. Leadership
differs from management, though, because leadership looks to the forward
growth of the organization, whereas management concentrates more on the day-
to-day operations of the organization.
Warren Bennis, in “On Becoming a Leader,” examined and compared the
functions of management with leadership. According to Bennis, some of the
distinctions between leadership and management include the following key
points:
• The manager administers; the leader innovates.
• The manager maintains; the leader develops.
• The manager focuses on systems and structures; the leader focuses
on people.
• The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.
• The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a
long-range perspective.
• The manager has his/her eye always on the bottom line; the leader
has his/her eye on the horizon.
• The manager imitates; the leader originates.
• The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges the status quo.
• The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.
Management attempts to ensure the smooth regular working of an organization.
Many argue that sound management principles seek to insulate an organization
from change. The purpose of management is normally viewed as the act of
providing a sense or regularity and familiarity. In the context of a school,
a major portion of the job description of a principal relates to a
principal’s management ability, which is the ability to provide a safe,
orderly, efficient school for the stakeholders of the community. The
principal is encouraged through training to resist the changing fads in
education and to stick with sound and proven methods of education.
Leadership: Part I
Leadership
The principal, however, must also be an education leader. Leadership
suggests that the school administrator must always strive to improve the
school. He/she must be willing to make those changes necessary that will
improve learning for all students. This job requirement sometimes can be
seen as the direct opposite of management. Effective school administrators
must continually examine the school or school system to find areas in which
improvements can be made that will strengthen the organization. They must be
risk takers who are sometimes willing to try new innovative approaches. Part
of their leadership ability is their willingness to allow and encourage
subordinates (i.e., teachers) to experiment and try new approaches to
educating children.
There have literally been scores, if not hundreds, of books written over the
past two decades dealing with leadership and how that term is defined. Many
of these have been geared or directed to the business sector; however, most
of these authors suggest that leadership is a quality that transcends any
one area to encompass society as a whole. That is to say, a leader in one
area such as business, education, or the military has specific qualities
that make him/her suited for leadership in other areas.
Leadership can be divided into differing kinds or types. Leadership
associated with education include instructional, transformational,
participative, contingency, and managerial. Instructional leadership relates
to the idea that the leadership role of a school principal must focus on
improving the instruction offered to students to provide for increased
student achievement. Transformational leadership is the concept that the
major duty of a school leader is to be a change agent for the institution. A
transformational leader is one who first develops a forward-looking vision
of the school or school system. The leader then is able to share this vision
with others, and the organization takes the necessary steps to achieve the
objectives of the vision. Participatory leadership is also known as shared
decision making. This type of leader emphasizes the strengths of other group
members. Participatory leadership then is leadership where decisions
affecting the organization are made by the organization, not simply by one
individual. Managerial leadership is leadership at the managerial level.
This type of leadership emphasizes the management function necessary for the
organization to survive. The leadership component is considered secondary to
management.
Charcteristics of Effective Leaders Compared to Those of Nonleaders
Ralph Stogdill from Ohio State reviewed leadership studies to determine if
there is a relationship between specific personality and character traits
common to leaders but absent in individuals considered to be nonleaders.
Stogdill’s research suggested that leaders have 5 specific areas in which
they can readily be distinguished from nonleaders: capacity, achievement,
responsibility, participation, and status.
Effects of Leadership Types or Styles
A study conducted by researchers at the University of Iowa in 1939 grouped
leadership into 3 separate and distinct styles: authoritarian, democratic,
and laissez-faire. The purpose of the study was to ascertain the style of
leadership most liked by employees, as well as to determine the most
effective leadership style. Authoritarian leaders in the study were
directive and allowed no participation in the decision making by group
members (Theory X style). Democratic leaders in the study involved as many
members of the group as possible into the decision-making processes (Theory
Z style). Laissez-faire leaders took no initiatives relating to either the
setting or attainment of group goals. Subordinates were completely free to
make any and all decisions for the organization (Theory Y style). The
results of the Iowa study revealed that although productivity was marginally
higher with the authoritarian style of leadership, that particular style
elicited both aggressive and apathetic behaviors among group members.
Subordinates preferred the democratic style of leadership but chose laissez-
faire leadership over the authoritarian style. In a subsequent study,
authoritarian leadership also produced increased productivity.
Leadership: Part II
Contingency Leadership Style
Contingency leadership research, particularly that of Fred Fiedler, suggests
that because leadership is such a complex issue involving leaders and
subordinates, no single factor can be used to measure or describe it.
Rather, this style or approach suggests that leadership is dependent on a
variety of factors: the relationship between the leader and members of the
organization, the particular task or job facing the group, and the power or
authority given to the leader. Basically, Fiedler suggested that a task-
motivated leader is effective in favorable and unfavorable situations and
that a relationship-type leader is more productive when the task assigned to
a group is not particularly demanding. In other words, Fiedler seemed to
suggest that a task-oriented leader (i.e., an authoritarian leader) is often
the best leader for the situation, although a leader that has positive
relations with group members can be successful especially when the group is
facing a task that is not too demanding.
Path-Goal Theory
The Path-Goal leadership theory is based on the relationship between the
leader and his/her behavior with certain situational factors of the
organization’s environment. The Path-Goal divides leadership into 4 types of
leadership behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement
oriented. The theory further suggests that leaders use each of these 4 types
depending on the situation.
Two of the more recent theories examining leadership were first addressed in
previous chapters. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed a theory that
distinguishes leaders based on their concern for people (their followers or,
in most examples, their employees) and concern for production. Hersey and
Blanchard developed the theory of situational leadership, which suggests
that the relationship between a leader and a subordinate is based completely
on the situation. Hersey and Blanchard formulated 4 differing progressive
leadership styles: directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating. These
leadership styles are used depending on the maturity level of the
subordinate and the difficulty of the task that the employee is to
accomplish.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the
readings will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where
possible, Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics
presented in this chapter.
1. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/au-24/au24-435.htm (Duties of
a leader)
2. http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadcon.html (This
article examines the attributes of a leader)
3. http://www.infed.org/leadership/traditional_leadership.htm (This
article reviews the history of leadership theory and examines some of
the requirements deemed necessary for leadership)
Introduction to Decision Making
"The better a man is, the more mistakes he will make, for the more new
things he will try. I would never promote to a top-level job a man who was
not making mistakes...otherwise he is sure to be mediocre." Peter Druker
Many argue that one of the key attributes of a leader is his/her ability in
the area of decision making, which involves 3 main components: (1) the
ability to analyze the present situation being mindful of past history and
aware of potential hazards in the future; (2) examining possible
alternatives, plans, or choices; and (3) selecting one option from the above
to move to without second guessing the choice made. It is important to note
that in regards to decision making, many feel that number 3 above is in
error, suggesting that a leader or manager should occasionally review the
decision made to make sure it was correctly chosen. By doing this,
alternative decisions can then be introduced. This lesson explains each of
the above steps and provides additional areas of thought that the school
administrator should be familiar with.
Decision Making Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify the names of at least 4 famous management theorists who dealt
with the
decision-making process.
2. Identify the 3 major parts of the decision-making process.
3. Identify/describe the 2 types of decision-making processes.
Henry Mintzberg, a Canadian professor of management theory, suggested that
the decision- making process can best be divided into three phases:
• Identification Phase – A manager or leader recognizes that a problem
exists in the organization. The problem should be evaluated to determine its
severity.
• Development Phase – The development phase seeks to identify traditional
and nontraditional routes and paths to solve the problem. In this phase, the
manager or leader also identifies and examines potential positive and
negative consequences associated with each possible decision path.
• Selection Phase – In this phase, the decision maker selects the route or
path that the organization chooses to make concerning the identified problem.
Peter Drucker, one of the more well-known management theorists, suggested
that the decision- making process consists of 6 separate and distinct steps:
(1) the problem first must be adequately defined, (2) an analysis of the
problem must be performed before one can understand the problem’s cause and
possible consequences, (3) a range of solutions to the problem must be made,
(4) a decision must then be made as to which solution is best for the
organization, (5) the decision is then put into effect, (6) which causes the
organization and leader/manager to monitor the results.
Decision Making: Part I
Classical Model of the Decision-Making Process
Decision-making processes can be divided into classical and behavioral
models. The classical process is based on the concept of rationality. The
processes listed in the previous sections of this chapter represent this
type of decision making. First, the problem is identified, possible ways of
handling the problem are developed, each possible way or strategy is then
evaluated, one strategy is selected, the strategy is then implemented, and
the results of the strategy are then evaluated to determine its success.
Behavioral Model of the Decision-Making Process
The classical decision-making process assumes almost a laboratory
environment or setting in which the person making the decision is isolated
from other extraneous variables and conditions. The behavioral decision-
making process assumes that in most situations, the decision maker is faced
with completely different circumstances than in the classical model. The
behavioral model recognizes that problems facing the organization often are
not completely identified regarding their extent. The model also recognizes
that all alternatives to solving the problem are not identified;
consequently, the selection of the way in which to solve the particular
problem may not be the best alternative. Therefore, the leader or manager
often must use his/her experiences and intuition in selecting the best
option to solve the identified problem.
Vroom-Yetton Model of the Decision-Making Process
The Vroom-Yetton model is somewhat similar to situational leadership
discussed in lesson 2. The Vroom-Yelton normative model of decision making
is a type of decision-making “tree.” This model identifies 5 decision-making
styles: Autocratic I, Autocratic II, Consultative I, Consultative II, and
Group III. In the Autocratic I method, the decision maker basically
recognizes that a decision is necessary and, without input from others,
selects the method to solve the identified problem. The manager in the
Autocratic II method seeks additional information from the group but makes
the decision alone as to the selection of the process. In the Consultative I
model, the leader asks for input from individual group members prior to
making a decision. Group members are consulted individually and without the
benefit of group decision making. Similarly, in the Consultative II method,
the leader seeks opinions from the group as a whole but eventually makes the
actual decision alone. The Group II model is one in which the leader
discusses the problem with the group extensively. The group, including the
leader, comes to consensus and decides on how the problem will be solved.
Decision Making: Part II
Site-Based Decision-Making Process
The Group II type of decision making discussed previously is sometimes known
as site-based decision making and has over the past decade or so been used
extensively in schools. Benefits derived from this type of decision making
include the following:
• Because decisions are being made by more than one person in the site-based
decision- making process, the additional knowledge and experiences of group
members can sometimes improve the quality of both the options considered and
the final decision reached.
• Because of the group’s participation in the decision-making process, the
group invariably is much more willing to accept the solution reached. The
group, in effect, has claimed “ownership” of the problem and the solution.
• Because the decision was reached by a group instead of one individual, the
decision made often is superior to that of one made solely by an individual.
The group type of decision- making process is one in which decisions are
made after serious discussion. This process prevents a “spur of the moment”
type of decision that possibly could be made by an individual.
Site-based decision making is not without its disadvantages. The process of
using a group in making decisions often results in some of the following
negative results:
• Members involved in site-based decision making feel a sense of
invulnerability as a group. They often take excessive risks that they would
not do when acting alone.
• Site-based decision makers may develop their own unique political
pressure. This is noteworthy in that one reason for the creation of site-
based decision making was to remove politics from the decision-making
process. Often, this pressure is applied to group members who suggest ideas
that are not welcomed by the group.
• Members participating in site-based decision making may shield themselves
and other group members from information or suggestions that run counter to
the core beliefs of the group.
Delphi Technique of the Decision-Making Process
The Delphi technique of decision making formulated by the Rand Corporation
consists of members from both inside and outside of the group being
presented with a problem facing the organization. Each person individually
attacks the problem and submits possible ways of solving the problem to a
core group that collects the ideas and resubmits each idea to every member.
Members then review the suggestions and continue to develop and refine those
ideas. The process continues until the group reaches a common strategy.
Devil’s Advocacy of the Decision-Making Process
The use of a “Devil’s Advocate” is a useful tool in decision making. This
strategy is used by both individuals and groups. The process involves an
individual or group submitting suggestions and ideas concerning a decision
to an individual whose purpose is to find fault with that idea. The process
continues until the individual or group suggests ideas that the person
playing Devil’s Advocate cannot find fault
____________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 4 Content: Communications and Organizational Change
Introduction to Communications
One of the most important attributes of a school leader is his/her ability to
communicate with various “publics.” Often, the major criticism levied at
school administrators is the apparent unwillingness to listen to parents and
staff members, and their unwillingness to communicate with those or other
groups. The purpose of this chapter is to identify the components necessary
for effective communication.
Communications Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify a minimum of 4 ways in which body language is used in
the communication process.
2. List and describe 4 ways in which communication is achieved.
It is estimated that school administrators spend an average between 70% and
80% of the day communicating to various publics, including teachers,
students, parents, central office staff members, and community members.
Communication can be broken down into 6 parts: ideating, encoding,
transmitting, receiving, decoding, and acting. Ideating is the process of
developing the idea or message that is to be delivered. Usually, this process
is almost automatic and is accomplished with little effort or thought. In
certain circumstances, though, great effort must be exercised to convey the
right wording and context. Encoding, the next step in the communication
process, consists of further developing the message that is to be sent.
Encoding can include spoken as well as written words, symbols, drawings, and
body language. It is important that the message sender use the same
vocabulary as the message receiver. Transmitting is the process or method of
the actual communication. Transmitting can consist of a variety of methods or
ways in which the message is delivered, including face-to-face
communications, written messages, body language, and so on. Decoding is the
process in which a person receiving the message decodes the message to
ascertain the meaning of the received message. Acting is what the receiver
does with the message.
Nonverbal communication is an extremely important part of communication. Also
sometimes known as body language, nonverbal communication is often as
important a communication tool as written or spoken communication. Some
suggest that nearly 90% of the communication between individuals consists of
this type of nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication consists of
kinesis – body movements and positions; paralanguage – voice qualities,
including volume, rate of speech, and tone; proxemics- space or proximity
between the sender and message receiver; and chronemics – determination and
definition of time.
More on Communications
Communication Directions
Communication is extremely important in any organization. Following are some
of the ways in which communication channels operate:
• Downward communication consists of a person in authority communicating to
subordinates and makes up a large part of the communication processes of
school administrators. Downward communication can consist of anything from
body language; the spoken or written word, including staff memos and
announcements; and may even include the dress or attire of an individual.
Downward communication is normally easily achieved. The school administrator
must be aware that subordinates often may not receive the same message that
was transmitted by the administrator. This may happen for a variety of
reasons. It is then necessary to repeat the message to the recipient,
including resending the message or following the message with a memo or
letter.
• Upward communication tends to require additional time and effort. In The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Erving Goffman (1959) suggested that
individuals sending a message to various groups of people shape the message
to fit the audience it is intended for. Self-preservation dictates that
upward communication requires the individual - a subordinate for example - to
shape the message to a superior that will cast the best impression on
him/herself.
• Horizontal communication takes place between individuals who hold the same
or close to the same hierarchical level in the organization.
• Grapevines exist in every organization – large or small. In almost all
instances, grapevine communication consists of verbal messages. Grapevines
can be a useful tool in that messages delivered by grapevine rather
dramatically speed through the organization, usually without hindrance.
Listening to the grapevine can provide the administrator with insight into
the feelings and beliefs of employees. The weakness of grapevine
communication is that the message often is erroneous and has no basis in
reality. When this occurs, the administrator often must put to rest the rumor
by formally communicating with the group.
Open Door Policy
Many school administrators choose to have what is known as an “open door
policy,” which consists of informing subordinate staff members as well as
teachers, students, and community members the message that they are welcome
to visit and discuss their concerns without having to schedule an
appointment. The purpose of this policy is to make the administrator more
accessible. It is basically a management style that is used as a
communication tool. In a school setting, this type of policy tends to be
supported by staff members as a whole. The major problem with the policy has
to do with time management. In some instances, the policy prevents the
administrator from completing necessary duties or tasks. It often results in
the school administrator remaining after school to finish work following
impromptu meetings with staff, students, and parents.
Techniques to Enhance Communication
Because communication is so important in any organization, an administrator
must develop and refine specific skills to improve the ability to receive
information. One method of improving communication is through repetition. A
sender may announce a decision or a policy to a group verbally several times
and then send that information again through a second method, such as by an e-
mail or a memo. To make sure that the information is being received, a person
often engages in “active listening,” which puts the talker at ease, asks for
clarification of the speaker’s message when necessary, and occasionally
repeats segments of the listener’s statements.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this chapter.
1. http://www.selfgrowth.com/bodyl.html (Article on “Body Language”
Select Ten Best Body Language Tips)
2. http://www.positive-way.com/body.htm (Article on “Body Language”)
Introduction to Organizational Change
This chapter deals with the change process of an organization. Change is one
process that many people in any organization fear for a variety of reasons.
Possibly the most unique duty of a school principal is that the position
requires him/her to stabilize the school – to keep the school founded on
common and understood principles and traditions while at the same time
seeking ways and methods of bringing change to improve the school. This
chapter is directed to identifying those reasons why individuals and
organizations fear change and what steps can be taken to minimize the fear of
change.
Organizational Change Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. List and explain a minimum of 3 reasons why people resist change.
2. Identify and describe how resistance to change can be managed and overcome.
The Call for Change in Education
There have been numerous calls for school improvement throughout the history
of American education. The second half of the 20th century saw a call to
overhaul education, particularly in the area of science, with the Russian
launch of Sputnik. “A Nation at Risk,” published in 1983, cited numerous
examples of how education in this country was failing. It called for dramatic
change in the content of the curriculum, standards, and expectations of
students; changes in the way in which students are taught; and changes in the
amount of time children spend in school. That report was soon followed by
Goals 200 during the 1990s, which again depicted the weaknesses of American
education and suggested improvements or changes. In addition, there have been
numerous books written that depict the necessity of educational improvements.
Among those are A Place Called School, by John Goodlad (1984), and The Good
High School, by Sara Lightfoot. The current demand for change in education is
the No Child Left Behind Act. To understand why the perception of the need
for change in American education is so common, one must understand the nature
of change and why change is so difficult to achieve.
Change occurs in educational systems because of the presence of a variety of
factors, such as public demands for accountability, changing demographics,
improvements in technology, and the real or imaginary perception that
education is not serving students as it should. Many of the reports listed in
the previous paragraph place a demand on schools to improve the educational
attainment of students. Schools as well as teachers are facing greater
demands by local, state, and federal governments as well as the public to
become more accountable for the levels of education attained by students. In
many states, legislation has been passed that removes local control of
schools if predetermined educational goals are not met. Changes in student
demographics have also forced school systems to dramatically change their
curricula offerings and their structure. Advancements in technology over the
past 20 years have dramatically changed the American classroom. Computers and
other technologies now often support instruction.
Resistance to Change
Schools are not unlike other organizations in that change is often resisted
for a variety of reasons. It is particularly important to note when
discussing this topic that change in public schools happens much less easily
than it does in either charter schools or private schools. School personnel
are fearful of the unknown. Teachers as well as other personnel are uncertain
that they have the expertise necessary to perform in a new or strange
environment. They hesitate to adopt or embrace newer ways of performing their
duties because these changes infringe on their “comfort zone,” and they argue
that the education of students is too important to try newer, “untested”
methods. School personnel resist change because they see themselves as the
experts in education. They often consider newer innovations in schooling as a
passing fad that will soon be replaced by another method. Another reason for
resistance to change is that schools often may know of newer innovative
curriculum strategies but because of budget constraints or previous failed
attempts to improve education, they are unable to introduce these
improvements into the classroom.
Reducing Resistance
To reduce the resistance to change, the leader – in this context, the school
principal- needs to become aware of the reasons for the resistance. This
awareness comes from the principal’s ability to talk to faculty and staff
members to determine the cause of their resistance to change and then to
reduce their fears.
As mentioned previously, a school principal’s role as a manager often is
considered to be responsible not for change but for its opposite, namely, the
normal uneventful day-to-day activities of the school. As an educational
leader, however, he/she must constantly examine the workings of the school to
determine how student achievement can be maximized. The school principal must
develop a vision of how the school can be improved to the benefit of
students, faculty, and staff. The administrator must then begin the process
of sharing this vision with the members of the school or school district.
It is critically important to provide a sense of ownership in the entire
change process. Change is more lasting when employees “buy into” the change
process. There are several ways for the school leader to accomplish this.
Data, including projected enrollments, government mandates, and test results,
should be shared with employees to demonstrate the need for change. School
employees can help to develop the school goals or further refine the vision.
Employees can also participate in the planning phase of change by evaluating
and selecting the best strategy to accomplish the change process.
Other methods can also be used to reduce the resistance to change. Often,
rewards can be provided that make change more palatable to employees. Rewards
can consist of anything from financial considerations for performance during
the change process to increased recognition, praise, and status of employees
in the organization. Unfortunately, some employees refuse to accept mandated
change. In those instances, coercion is needed to force acceptance. This may
consist of threats to employment, reduced compensation, unfavorable
evaluations, or a loss of status among other employees. School administrators
need to be careful about the use of coercion because the misuse of this power
has the potential of turning other staff members away from the intended
change due to sympathy with their fellow teachers.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this chapter. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this chapter.
1. http://www.focusedperformance.com/articles/resistance.html (Article
on change and how to overcome obstacles to change)
2. http://www.toolpack.com/change.html (This article discusses how
surveys and questionnaires can be used to help support the need for
change in an organization)
3. http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html (This link is to “A Nation
at Risk.” Please read the “Recommendations” section)
___________________________________________________________________________
ADOL 630 - Lesson 5: The Federal and State Government and Education
Introduction
The purpose of this lesson is to explore federal and state government
involvement in education. This lesson examines some of the recent history of
the federal government’s involvement in education, including compensatory
education and concerns by the federal government over the quality of
education being provided.
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify federal, state, and local responsibilities for education.
2. Discuss the governance of education.
3. Describe and list some of the calls for reforming the educational
system of the United States.
Federal Involvement
It is important to note that the word education does not appear in the
Constitution of the United States. Education, thus, is primarily seen as a
state and local function. However, since almost from the beginning of the
nation, the federal government has demonstrated a tremendous interest in the
education of the population. Some texts review some of the history of the
federal government’s involvement in education. Following are some of the more
important measures and steps:
The creation of a cabinet-level position of Secretary of Education in
1980.This provided much more direct focus of the federal government from the
previous position education held as part of the cabinet position of Health,
Education, and Welfare.
The federal government has demonstrated a history of supporting education
through a variety of means, from the first Northwest Ordinance, the Morrill
Act, the Smith Hughes Act, to the expenditures and support of today.
The federal government has taken an extremely active role in what is known as
compensatory education. The federal government appears to be particularly
interested in attempting to provide educational support to individuals and
groups that have a significant educational disadvantage. These compensatory
type programs include provisions for educating non-English speaking students
through bilingual and ESL programs. IDEA, previously known as PL 94-142; the
Americans with Disabilities Act; and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
specifically target students and adults with disabilities needing
compensatory education and/or modifications. Federal Title I or Chapter I
reading and math programs for poorer students scoring below average is a
compensatory education program supported by the federal government that
represents another example of the government’s interests.
There have been several studies sponsored by the federal government
concerning the quality of American education, particularly since the 1960s
Sputnik launch. These reports have often called attention to the weaknesses
of the American educational system and have also suggested changes necessary
to improve the quality of education. The first was the 1983 report “A Nation
at Risk.” This study pointed to serious flaws and weaknesses in the current
educational system. Some texts lists 9 examples of weaknesses or inadequacies
of American education. They also lists 12 educational commissions established
since the publication of “A Nation at Risk” calling for specific objectives
or actions needed to improve education.
State Involvement
Every state through its state constitution has direct involvement in public
and, in some cases, private education. State involvement usually involves the
governor; the state legislature; and some sort of bureaucratic state
organization, such as the Department of Public Instruction in North Carolina
or the State Board of Education in Kentucky. These bodies directly affect
education through legislation, state education initiatives, teacher salary
scales, and so on. Many states have an elected or appointed individual called
a state superintendent who is charged with overseeing educational practices
in the state. State courts hear and decide cases affecting a variety of
educational issues as well as claims by individuals.
Possibly the area that most directly effects education comes from state
boards of education regarding the establishment of a state curriculum. The
state-adopted curriculum actually controls the standard curriculum that is
taught in classrooms throughout the state.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this lesson. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this lesson.
1. Short General History of The Federal Government and Education
http://members.tripod.com/~candst/educ.htm (This link is a short
history of the role of the United States Government in American education)
2. The Role of the Federal Government in Public Education in the
United States http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/edu/ed370/
federal.html(This link is a rather comprehensive description of some
of the legislation and court decisions by the federal government
affecting education)
_________________________________________________________________________
ADOL 630 - Lesson 6: Local School Districts
Introduction
This lesson examines the organizational structure of education at the
district level. School governance by principals and superintendents is also
addressed.
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify the responsibilities of a local school board.
2. List and define 4 duties of a school superintendent.
School Boards
We read in chapter 9 that federal and state governments greatly influence
education for all schools and students. However, it has always been the basic
belief of this country that schools should be controlled at the local level.
Thus, each school fits into a unique organization known as a school district
principally governed and administered through local officials known as boards
of education. Board members may be appointed to office by a government agency
or official, or by the population of the district in which they live through
an election. Some states provide for partisan school board elections; other
states specifically mandate nonpartisans board member elections. School
boards have 4 primary duties: (1) the election or appointment of a
superintendent, the chief school officer of a district; (2) the formation of
board policies that govern the day-to-day workings of a school; (3) the
creation of district budgets that determine how monies are to be spent in the
district; and (4) in some states, the actual setting of tax rates that will
finance school activities.
Board members have no power by themselves to do anything affecting schools.
School board members may act officially only during school board meetings.
These meetings, which are always open to the public, are of three types: (1)
regular, (2) special, and (3) executive. Regular board meetings normally
occur at a common time each month and handle the normal business of school
boards. Special called board meetings usually occur when the school board
must address a particular issue or problem. Executive meetings or executive
sessions of other meetings are held in private and are closed to the public.
Most states provide, however, that school board members may only vote and
thus act in public meetings. Laws governing school board meetings vary from
state to state. “Sunshine Laws” are rules that many states have that board
meetings, as well as other governmental agency meetings, must be held at a
reasonable time and place to allow the public to attend. Other states like
Kentucky provide for “Open Meetings Laws” that have a similar intent.
School Superintendents
The school superintendent is the chief school officer of a local education
agency (LEA). Normally, the school superintendent serves as secretary to the
board and provides the executive function for a board of education. The
superintendent has numerous duties, including (1) recommending for hiring (in
some states such as Kentucky actually employing personnel); promoting and
dismissing school personnel; (2) overseeing the execution of the school
budget; (3) ensuring that all applicable federal, state, and local laws are
met; and (4) ultimately taking responsibility for the educational success of
students.
Individuals selected by a school board as superintendents normally operate
under a negotiated contract that specifies their term of employment and
compensation. Superintendent salaries vary from state to state and may depend
on the size (meaning student population of the district) and wealth of the
school district. Superintendents’ annual salaries normally range between
$90,000 and $140,000. The average tenure of a superintendent lasts 4 to 6
years. A district unhappy with the performance of a superintendent has the
option of “buying out the contract” or buying the remaining contract time of
the superintendent at board expense.
Local School Office and Principal
School Office
The superintendent operates out of what is known as the “Central Office.”
This facility generally houses all those individuals who have district
responsibility, including assistant or associate superintendents, program
directors, curricula specialists, school finance officer, bookkeepers, and
secretaries. Teachers, parents, and principals often view the central office
negatively. In many cases, central office positions are staffed by former
principals or teachers who have been promoted or, in some cases, moved from
the school.
School Principal
The school principal serves as the head of a school. In early American
history, the principal was often referred to as the head teacher or lead
teacher. The principal has numerous and varied responsibilities, including
everything from building and grounds maintenance and school safety to the
selection and employment of school staff members. In addition to evaluating
school personnel, the principal is also charged with overseeing student
discipline, administering a school budget, providing an effective learning
climate for students, and ensuring that all federal and states laws and rules
are followed. In many areas, the principal also has duties regarding the
creation of bus routes; the employment of bus drivers; and the supervision of
after-school activities, including athletic, club, and social events.
In some 16 states, principalship is a tenurable position. Other states
mandate that boards provide principals with contracts for specific time
periods similar to those of superintendents. The salaries of school
principals varies widely from state to state. Criteria that affect or
determine a principal’s salary may include the number of days worked (some
states specify in the principal’s contract a number of days of employment);
the grade level of the principalship (some states mandate that high school
principals be paid more than middle school principals, and those more than
elementary principals); the number of teachers assigned to a particular
school; the highest degree or rank of the principal; and the number of years
of experience.
Principals hold an unusual place in public schools. This is because on one
hand, the school principals represent tradition, authority, and order.
However, especially since the 1980s, principals have taken on the role of a
change agent for the public school. They now are responsible for moving the
school through the process of educational reform.
Principals are considered to be the instructional leaders of schools.
However, individuals in that position have the problem of being both managers
and leaders. They must manage and supervise the day- to-day routines of the
school while exhibiting leadership in improving the school.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this lesson. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this lesson.
1. America’s Principals and Superintendents -- Railing Against a Torrent
of Local, State and Federal Mandates:
http://www.publicagenda.org/press-releases/americas-principals-and-
superintendents-railing-against-torrent-local-state-and-
federal-mandates
(This link discusses some of the problems now facing superintendents
and principals regarding educational mandates)
2. Tenure or a Higher Salary -- Which Would You Take?
http://www.education-world.com/a_admin/admin099.shtml (This
article discusses some current movements regarding school
administrators, including the move to remove them from tenure protection)
___________________________________________________________________________
Lesson 7: School Finance and Productivity / Legal Considerations and Education
Introduction
This lesson introduces the students to some of the major trends and issues
affecting the financing of public education. This lesson is introductory only
because a course in school finance is normally required of all individuals
seeking certification in school leadership.
School Law is a very extensive course that is usually required of individuals
seeking certification in school leadership. This lesson introduces students
to some of the aspect of school law. It is important to note that this lesson
is an introduction only into the area of legal considerations in education.
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Identify a tax as being progressive, regressive, or proportional.
2. Identify and describe the 4 major ways that states support education.
3. List and identify the 4 ways of funding for school construction,
and explain the strengths and weaknesses of each way.
4. Identify the 4 origins and types of laws used in the United States.
5. Identify the major provisions of 3 separate federal laws that are
designed to protect the rights of Americans with disabilities.
6. Discuss some of the major constitutional safeguards granted through
court decisions and laws to students and teachers.
Financial Support for Education
Education is financed or paid for at both the local, federal, and state
levels. The federal government, as mentioned in a previous chapter,
concentrates most of its resources spent in education toward what is known as
compensatory education, that is, attempting to improve the educational level
and attainment of individuals with disabilities or other types of “at risk”
criteria.
State governments have constitutionally mandated interests in education and
nationally provide approximately 47% of the tax dollars spent on education.
States use a variety of state revenues in supporting public education,
including state sales tax, revenue from income taxes, and others.
Evaluation of Taxes
Taxes are divided into three types: progressive, regressive, and
proportional. Progressive taxes increase with the income of an individual.
They do not place an undue hardship on the taxpayer. Income taxes, and to
lesser extent property taxes, are examples of progressive taxes. Regressive
taxes are just the opposite. They place a heavy burden or undue hardship on
people. Examples of a regressive tax would include sales taxes on food and
medicine. To illustrate the difference in progressive and regressive
taxation, consider two individuals whose annual salaries are $25,000 and
$200,000, respectively. Sales taxes on food and gasoline would normally
amount to a much higher burden on the lower paid individual than on the one
making $200,000 per year. The third type of taxation is proportional. A
proportional tax increases directly with the income of an individual. An
income tax that allows no deductions for any reason (which also might be
known as a flat tax) would be an example of a proportional tax.
There are at least 5 criteria used to determine the quality or fairness of a
tax: (1) the degree of tax shifting allowable, (2) the visibility of a tax,
(3) tax earmarking, (4) the degree to which all taxpayers pay something, and
(5) the extent that the tax is considered to be regressive. Tax shifting is
the process in which a tax designed to be paid by an individual is shifted to
others. An example of this might include an increase of property taxes on an
apartment complex, where the owner “passes on” the tax increase to the
tenants through increasing monthly rents. Tax visibility is important in that
people need to know the amount of taxes they are paying. Tax earmarking
usually occurs at the state and local levels and occurs when a particular tax
is to be used for a specific purpose.
Additionally, many people contend that to qualify as a “good tax,” the tax
must be easy and inexpensive to collect. An example of this would include
state and federal taxes on gasoline. Another quality is that the tax must not
be regressive by placing an undue burden on the poor.
Property Taxes
Local government support in education originates almost completely from
property taxes. These taxes are assessed yearly on the value of property.
States differ on how property is assessed. In some states, laws dictate that
the property be assessed through contractual arrangements with individuals or
firms from outside the area. Other states allow for state or county property
assessors to place a value on real property. A local government (e.g., in
Kentucky, the school board) set a tax rate expressed in mills or an amount
per $100 or per $1,000 of value. To illustrate this procedure, the following
example is presented:
A house and a lot are assessed by the local tax assessor at a value of
$147,500. The tax rate of the county or city has been set at $.50 per $100 of
evaluation (or $5 per $1,000), which is also expressed as 5 mills. To
determine the taxes on the piece of property, simply either divide 147,500 by
100 and then multiply by .5, or divide 147,500 by 1,000 and then divide by 5.
The yearly tax placed on this piece of property would be $737.50.
Sales Tax
Sales taxes are collected and are commonly used by state and local
governments. Sales taxes tend to be progressive taxes, if not placed on food
and medicine, and make up about 30% of state revenues of the 30 states
collecting them. Often, sales taxes are collected and divided between state
and local governments. In most instances, when this happens, the local share
of the tax is earmarked for educational purposes. One of the problems
associated with the dependence of school districts on sales tax receipts is
that the tax is somewhat unstable in amount because it fluctuates with the
economy.
Personal Income Tax
The income tax is a progressive tax and, in most instances, supports state
and federal governments only. It is designed to tax individuals and
businesses. Very few local boards of education have any ability to tax
personal income.
Lotteries
Possibly the most regressive form of taxation is the lottery. Lotteries are
becoming more and more popular among states and are now quite common. The
regressive property of the lottery is due to the economic condition of many
of the individuals who play or participate in it. Those individuals often
tend to be among the poor and, thus, shoulder a much higher tax burden by
participating in the lottery than do other members of society. Many states
have earmarked or obligated lottery proceeds to support education.
Sumptuary or Sin Taxes
Many states have elected to create taxes on particular goods or services to
collect revenue and to attempt to somewhat control activities and practices
that are not considered to be in the public good. Examples of these may be
specific taxes on pool halls, alcohol, cigarettes, and so on. In some
instances, the proceeds from these taxes have been earmarked to support local
education.
State Funding of Public Education
States have developed numerous ways to fund public education. The plans vary
by state, and many states actually use parts or many of the plans listed here:
Flat Grants
Flat grants are expenditures from states to local school districts based on
the number of students enrolled in the district. Flat grants allow districts
to use the state supplied funds for any purpose. Some states, in recognition
of the lack of wealth of certain districts, have attempted to equalize
funding by increasing the amount of money given to poorer school districts.
Foundation Plans
A foundation plan, sometimes known as a minimum foundation plan, is the act
of a state setting an amount per student as the minimum or absolute lowest
dollar amount needed or necessary to ensure a quality education for every
child in the state. Local boards of education then receive this amount per
student. Wealthy districts often then supplement this amount with local tax
dollars to further provide for education. States that operate under the
foundation plan often witness huge discrepancies of the total dollars per
child spent in different school districts based on the wealth or lack of
wealth of school districts.
Power Equalizing Plan
The power equalizing plan is an attempt by states to equalize the actual
funding of education between wealthy and poor school districts. The plan
usually includes the provision that states provide differing amounts of money
per student based on the wealth of the school district. Poorer districts
receive more state aid for education than do more wealthy districts. Some
states modify the plan somewhat to allow districts to receive more state
financial support if the local district raises its local property tax rate
and thus the district receives more local as well as state support.
Weighted Student Plan
The weighted student plan is based on the realization that certain types of
students tend to be much more expensive to educate than other types. Students
usually included in this group are children identified as handicapped under
IDEA, children with limited ability in English (ESL), children from migrant
families, and so on. What occurs in the plan is that the state first
establishes an amount per student for education. The state then multiplies
that amount by a weighted factor to provide for the increased costs of
educating children in that particular group.
Choice and Voucher Plans
At least 3 states or city boards of education currently allow parents some
limited use of school choice by way of vouchers. Vouchers enable parents to
send their students to public or private schools at public expense. Some
voucher plans provide this ability if the local public school has been
declared to be “substandard” or failing by the state. Parents who wish their
children to be educated in something other than the local public school
receive from the state a voucher that can be applied to the tuition at a
public or private school. Most voucher plans provide that the state and local
tax money allocated per student be given to parents wishing to enroll their
child in a different public or private school. Advocates of voucher plans
content that the use of vouchers not only allows parents to send their
students to what they consider to be superior schools but also dictates to
local schools the necessity for improvement.
Charter Schools
Although our text does not include charter schools in this chapter concerning
financing education, the financing of charter schools is becoming an
extremely important part of education across America. The majority of states
now have authorized the creation of charter schools. The federal government,
under President Clinton and now under President Bush, yearly allocated funds
for the creation of these schools. Charter schools are public schools that
operate under a charter granted to them by the state legislature. These
schools are usually free from state education mandates and rules and are
allowed to operate for the length of their charter. The only state
constraints placed on them is that students attending these schools must
achieve academically at or above the average for the state.
School Size and Construction
During the 1970s, many schools and school districts were consolidated. These
actions were taken for two major reasons. Many states and local districts
consolidated schools in effort to reduce the costs of education per student.
With larger schools, unnecessary duplications of services were eliminated:
Fewer administrators and support staff were needed, more cost-efficient
school transportation was provided, and so on. The other major reason for the
push toward consolidation was the belief that larger schools, particularly at
the secondary level, would provide students with many educational advantages,
would expand curricula offerings, and would increase social activities.
School and school district consolidation ended during the late 1980s;
currently, the trend is toward smaller, more community-based schools.
Research has suggested that schools with larger student populations actually
have less student achievement. Research into school size also has suggested
that many of the perceived economic savings by creating larger schools have
vanished because large schools often are forced into providing many more
supplemental services than are needed at smaller schools. To realize the
benefits associated with smaller schools, many large urban schools have
adopted the concept of a “school within a school.”
School Construction
In many communities across the nation, schools are becoming seriously
overcrowded due to an increasing population. Many schools are forced to buy
and set up “mobile classrooms” simply to house the growing number of
students. In other cases, some school districts wish to construct new
buildings to replace older, functionally obsolete schools, where renovating
and/or remodeling is not practical. Other districts, due to community
pressures as well as a desire to maintain community support, have elected to
completely renovate and refurbish older schools. There are four basic ways in
which school districts provide for the construction costs of new schools:
• Building Reserve Plan
The building reserve plan is a method of paying for school construction by
setting aside tax money in a separate interest-bearing account specifically
designated for school construction. This type of plan for school construction
is very rare, but it does occasionally happen. The advantage of this plan is
that the district is not encumbered by any interest costs associated with
school construction. Weaknesses of the plan, though, are numerous in that it
would normally take years for a district to save enough money for school
construction. Districts also often elect to build a much smaller building
with fewer amenities and resources in an attempt to cut costs and to hasten
construction.
• Pay As You Go
The pay as you go plan for school construction provides for school
construction to begin and proceed at a rate commensurate with the district’s
financial ability to pay for the construction. In this type of plan, a
district might purchase property for school construction in one fiscal year,
pay for site preparation the next year, start construction the third year,
and so on. Advantages of this plan are that as in the building reserve plan,
the school district is not saddled with interest costs. The actual school is
constructed much faster in this plan than in the building reserve plan. It is
important, however, to note that inflation costs often may eliminate any cost
savings associated with this plan.
• School Bonding
The most commonly used method of financing school construction is through the
process of school bonding, which allows a district facing school overcrowding
to almost immediately begin the process of school construction. This process
allows districts to provide students with modern, spacious schools without
having to wait years, as they often do in the two previously mentioned plans.
There are disadvantages to this approach, however. Districts engaging in
school bonding are saddled with both yearly interest and principal costs.
Many complain that because the construction costs are to be paid in the
future, districts often build extremely expensive, eye-appealing schools
instead of attempting to save money by building only what is necessary.
• School Renovation
As suggested in the preceding section, many school districts have elected to
forgo major expensive school construction by seeking to renovate existing
schools. This is accomplished by replacing doors, windows, heating and air
conditioning, and so on. Electric wiring, insulation, and plumbing are
included in the renovation plan. Overcrowded schools may have additions
or “wings” constructed to house classrooms, gymnasia, media centers, and so
on. Many often suggest that building renovations are preferable to new
construction because they are much cheaper and they keep a sense of community
in the school district.
Federal and State Government Involvement in Education
Public education in the United States is controlled by legal requirements at
the local, state, and federal levels. The executive, legislative, and
judicial branches of all three levels of governments have had a tremendous
impact on our current educational system. Although education is not mentioned
in the United States Constitution, the federal government has exercised and
continues to have enormous power over the shape and substance of education.
It achieves this from the Constitution, federal legislation, federal court
decisions, and administrative directives.
• U. S. Constitution
As mentioned previously, the Constitution of the United States does not
include the word education. The government directly affects education,
however, through the 1st, 4th, 8th, and 14th Amendments, along with certain
others. The 1st Amendment provides for freedom of religion, freedom of the
press, and freedom of speech and of assembly. School students and teachers
are protected against warrantless searches by the 4th Amendment.
During the 1970s, the 8th Amendment’s protection against cruel and unusual
punishment was found to be not applicable by two separate Supreme Court
decisions. Finally, the 14th Amendment protects students and teachers from
the abridgement or denial of life, liberty, and property without due process.
• State Constitutions
Every state constitution provides that the state is responsible for public
education. Additionally, state constitutions often provide specific rules and
directions concerning the creation and enforcement of schools and school
districts.
• Federal and State Legislation
Education has been and continues to be driven in part through legislative
enactments at the state and federal levels. Many of the rules and procedures
followed in today’s schools come from specific legislation at either the
state or federal level.
• Federal and State Court Decisions
Courts at the state and federal levels have decided thousands of issues
affecting schools and school personnel. The United States Constitution
established the federal court system consisting of a 3-tier system of
justice: federal District Courts, 13 appellant courts (known as Courts of
Appeal), and the United States Supreme Court. Many states have a similar
construction of their court systems.
Regulations, Rights, and Responsibilities of Education
Students’ Rights
• Searches
Students are protected against warrantless searches by the 4th Amendment to
the Constitution. Numerous court decisions at the state and federal levels
have allowed searches of students and their possessions if reasonable
suspicion is present. Courts have even occasionally upheld the strip searches
of entire groups of students. Generally, courts have looked to the Supreme
Court decision of New Jersey v. T.L.O, which clarified the circumstances of
searches that ruled that a school official needs only reasonable suspicion to
search a student as well as his/her belongings. Furthermore, the Court held
that the legality of a student search is dependent on the age and sex of the
student, the intrusiveness of the search, and the object that the search is
or was intended to find.
• Free Speech
The degree of free speech rights held by students has been established in
several court decisions. In Tinker v. De Moines, the Supreme Court held that
students do have limited rights of free speech, including symbolic speech,
but that these rights must give way to the need of a school to maintain order
and discipline. In Bethel School district No. 403 v. Fraser, the Court again
limited the freedom of speech of students, citing the responsibility of
school officials to limit the free speech rights of students.
• Corporal Punishment, Student Suspension, and Expulsion
The United States Supreme Court in two decisions has held that students are
not protected by the 8th Amendment protections against cruel and unusual
punishment. Numerous lower court decisions have cited those two decisions in
also refusing to apply the 8th Amendment’s protections to students.
The Supreme Court has also held that in matters of corporal punishment and
short-term suspensions of 10 days or less, school officials are not required
to provide a full adversarial hearing but, instead, only must notify students
what they are charged with and give them an opportunity to present their side
of the story. This process, known as limited or procedural due process, is
based on the Court’s decision that property rights are not being stripped
from students.
Student expulsions, however, require full sustentative due process that
includes a full adversarial hearing consisting of adequate notice, the right
to present and cross-examine witnesses, a copy of the transcript, an
impartial hearing officer, and certain other protections. Sustentative due
process is required in expulsions or long-term suspension of more than 10
days because the school is attempting to remove or strip the student of
his/her property rights, namely, the right to an education.
• Special Education (IDEA) Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities
Act (ADA)
Students with handicapping conditions or disabilities are provided with
special or additional protection under the aforementioned three federal laws.
IDEA identifies 11 or more specific disabilities of children from the age of
birth to 21 and requires local school districts to provide modified
instruction based on an individual plan for each student with a disability.
It further requires the school district to provide additional services,
including special transportation, physical therapy, occupational therapy,
speech, and other related services when a committee decides that those types
of services are necessary for the child to make adequate yearly progress. One
of the major aspects of IDEA is the requirement that students with
disabilities must be educated to the greatest extent possible in what is
known as the least restrictive environment (LRE). This means that as much as
possible, students identified as disabled must be educated with their non-
disabled peers. Students identified as disabled are also prevented by Honig
v. Doe from being suspended for longer than 10 days throughout the year
unless a manifestation meeting determines that the student’s behavior is not
associated with his/her exceptionality.
Section 504 also provides protections to students with disabilities.
Generally, students qualifying for 504 protection have health issues not
serious enough to qualify under IDEA. They do, however, present enough of a
handicapping condition that requires the school to make modifications to each
child’s education. These modifications are known as 504 plans and are written
yearly based on the child’s needs.
The Americans With Disabilities Education Act (ADA) was authorized by
Congress to protect students and adults from discriminatory practices due to
physical or other limitations. The law requires employers to make “reasonable
modifications” to accommodate individuals with disabilities in their major
life activities.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this lesson. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this lesson.
1. http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/28/04/2804.htm (This link is to
an article dealing with 21st Century School Finance)
2. http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-1/vouchers.html (This is an ERIC
article concerning the benefits and legality of various voucher
plans adopted by numerous states)
3. http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-ada.html (This link provides
additional information about ADA)
4. http://www.tentler.com/StudentsRights.htm (This link takes the reader
to a summary of the Tinker vs. Des Monies decision of the U.S.
Supreme Court. The link then allows the reader to select other links
that provide information concerning additional rights of students)
_________________________________________________________________________
ADOL 630 – Lesson 8: Curriculum Development and Implementation
/Human Resource Administration
and Gardening in the Minefield
Introduction
This lesson covers the theory and practice of curriculum development. It
examines the 4 basic approaches in the creation or development of
curriculum. This lesson also introduces a concept that is usually required
as a course in preparatory graduate programs leading to certification in
school leadership. This lesson seeks to introduce students to some of the
major components of the employment process.
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define as well as understand the term curriculum.
2. Identify three types of curricula and discuss their importance, or lack
of importance, in a school’s curriculum framework.
3. List, identify, and discuss the significance of the steps in
the procurement of personnel necessary to staff a modern public school.
4. Identify and provide information concerning 7 specific laws passed by
the United States Congress that regulate employment and
dismissal processes.
5. Discuss the reasons for implementation of a performance assessment
of educational faculty and staff.
Curriculum Defined
Obviously, when discussing curriculum construction, one must first decide
upon a definition of the term curriculum. Ralph Tyler defined curriculum
as “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous
and willful growth in personal social competence.” Many people make a
distinction about the definition of curriculum as to whether it is composed
of only planned lessons and activities or if it consists of everything a
child or student comes into contact with during the school day. Tyler
developed 4 questions that he suggested should regulate curriculum
construction:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these principles are being attained?
Because there is no clear definition of what curriculum actually is, it is
important to view some of the major types of curriculum. Following are some
of the more common “types” of curriculum, along with their definitions:
Overt Curriculum - Overt, explicit, or written curriculum consists of
curriculum that is designed to be the basis for formal schooling experience.
An overt or explicit curriculum may refer to a specific curriculum document
(s) that has/have been developed and selected as the official curriculum of a
school, school system, or a state. Thus, overt or explicit curriculum
represents the “official” curriculum.
Hidden or Covert Curriculum - Hidden or covert curriculum can be defined as
the informal curriculum that students receive through contacts in a school
setting. The hidden curriculum is often recognized as the entire body of
knowledge, beliefs, customs, biases, and prejudices that students come into
contact with. The hidden curriculum may include positive and negative
messages that students receive.
Null Curriculum - The null curriculum is the curriculum that is not taught.
This decision often provides students with the idea that these topics either
are not important in their educational experiences and in our society or that
they are too controversial to teach in school. Elliott Eisner (1994), often
considered to be one of the more prolific writers in the area of curriculum,
stated the following in regards to the null curriculum: “The major point I
have been trying to make thus far is that schools have consequences not only
by virtue of what they do not teach, but also by virtue of what they neglect
to teach. What students cannot consider, what they don't, processes they are
unable to use, have consequences for the kinds of lives they lead.”
Concomitant Curriculum - Concomitant or related curriculum consists of
curriculum that is taught, received, or emphasized at home. It includes those
experiences that are part of a family’s or group’s experiences. This type of
curriculum is often supported and related to many of the teachings of
churches and other organizations.
Rhetorical or Official Curriculum - Rhetorical curriculum is the official
curriculum established by policy makers, including school officials,
politicians, and state agencies. Rhetorical curriculum is the officially
mandated curriculum that is designed to be followed within the political
jurisdiction of those curriculum designers.
Curriculum in Use - The term curriculum in use refers to the formal
rhetorical or state-approved curriculum combined with specific curriculum
additions from textbooks, local curriculum additions, and additions by
teachers. The curriculum in use is the curriculum delivered to students by
the teachers and by the use of textbooks.
Received Curriculum - The received curriculum is the curriculum that students
receive and learn.
Curriculum Development and Construction
Professional organizations also have had a great deal of input into the
construction and development of public school curriculum. Some of these
organizations include the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), the
National Association for Music Education (NAME), the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), and the National Council for the Social
Studies (NCSS). These and other professional organizations and societies
continually work to refine and develop curricula content of their field.
The employment process in relationship to public schools consists of 6 or
more separate steps or procedures that usually occur in the following order:
(1) planning, (2) recruitment, (3) selection of personnel, (4) performance
appraisal, (5) professional development, and (6) decision making regarding
personnel. Each part of the 6-step process is critical to the organization.
The planning stage in terms of personnel means deciding on the number of
staff members needed, the qualifications necessary for each specific job, and
the construction of job descriptions. This stage is usually handled or
performed by board policy and through action at the school’s district office.
The planning stage is extremely important for several reasons. First, the
district office must ascertain the personnel needs of the district by
specifically addressing both the types of personnel and the certifications
necessary to maintain an effective school organization. It must also ensure
that adequate funds are available to support the requested personnel needs.
Second, job descriptions must meet all legal requirements. There are specific
federal and state laws that protect individuals from discriminatory practices
and require certain employers to make efforts to employ certain classes or
groups of individuals. Many organizations have a basic policy of reviewing
and rewriting job descriptions each time a vacancy occurs.
The way in which an organization conducts the recruitment phase is extremely
important for a variety of reasons. It is widely agreed that one of the keys
to an effective, high-quality instructional program rests on the quality of
the instructional staff. To secure the best quality teachers, a school or
school district must not simply expect excellent teachers to apply for
employment: They must proactively recruit them.
Recruitment and Selection of Personnel
Internal and External Sources for Recruitment
Internal sources of recruitment can denote hiring personnel from within the
organization, as well as attracting and employing individuals from the local
area. Schools often attempt to fill vacant positions by first advertising or
posting job vacancies within the local school and district. At the same time,
they also may advertise in local media markets in an attempt to attract
applicants from the surrounding area. Hiring staff members from within the
school or school district provides many advantages for the school: (1) lower
advertising costs, (2) often decreased training costs and time in that
employees from within the district are already trained and familiar with the
school or district’s educational programs, (3) increased morale and loyalty
from within the organization as well as from the surrounding area, and (4)
employment of individuals from surrounding areas usually results in less
turnover among employees. There are also advantages to an organization for
hiring people from different localities: People brought into an organization
from a distance may provide a more objective viewpoint concerning the
organization because they have no “baggage” or hidden agendas. These people
also tend to be more loyal to the administration.
Selection of Personnel
The selection of personnel is one of the most critical decisions for numerous
reasons:
Good employees are the most valuable asset of any organization.
• Training new employees is a huge investment of time and money. Schools,
like other types of organizations, must spend resources on training new
employees to bring them “up to speed” with particular educational programs
that the system is implementing.
• Employing the wrong person, that is, hiring someone who does not “fit in”
with the rest of a school’s staff, often causes poor morale among coworkers
and reduced productivity.
• After job descriptions have been written, vacancy notices posted, and
applications received comes one of the most critical parts of the employment
process: the selection process. The selection process basically consists of
studying applications and resumes, selecting applicants for interviews,
conducting the interview process, and checking references. Each of these
steps is critical to the selection of quality staff.
When selecting applicants for interviews, it is extremely important that read
job applications and resumes are read carefully. Particular attention must be
placed in the following areas:
• “Gaps” in employment should be carefully considered. Often, applicants
choose to omit job history and experiences.
• The length of time the applicant has spent with different organizations can
sometimes be an indication of how long the applicant will stay with the
organization. This information can provide insight into the applicant’s
loyalty to an organization.
• The application must be carefully reviewed to make sure that he/she has
completed and answered all questions, including criminal convictions, prior
dismissals, requested resignations, and so on.
Checking References
Checking references and background information is the least used but most
effective and productive tool in hiring quality employees. One survey
conducted by an organization revealed that some 34% of job applicants
embellished, misrepresented, or lied about their job backgrounds and
employment history. The following data support the need to thoroughly check
and evaluate the application and the references:
• 22% of applicants provided wrong information regarding their expertise and
achievements.
• 12% of applicants provided incorrect information regarding their previous
salary and job title.
• 11% of applicants gave incorrect information regarding their employment
history.
• 9% in the study lied about their educational background.
• Some 4% of applicants provided incorrect information regarding self-
employment status.
• 3.5% of applicants in the study lied regarding their criminal history.
• 1.5% of the study’s applicants provided false references.
This information clearly demonstrates clearly the need for thoroughly
examining each applicant’s resume and references. It has been said that it
takes about 20 times as long to fire or dismiss an employee as it does to
hire a quality employee.
Every applicant should understand at the beginning of the application process
that references and additional sources of references will be contacted. A
statement or waiver that releases the school and references from liability
should appear on each job application form. This procedure normally protects
individuals who provide negative comments about an applicant.
It is usually also wise to seek references from individuals and sources not
originally provided by the applicant. This can be accomplished in a number of
ways. One may speak to secretaries or other office personnel who can produce
additional information regarding an applicant’s job performance and
expertise. Another way to secure additional references is to ask an
individual serving as an applicant’s reference to provide the names of
individuals who can speak to the applicant’s background.
The Interview
There are two types of interviews: structured and nonstructured. Many
organizations and schools tend to rely on the structured interview approach.
In a structured interview, most of the interview questions have been
constructed prior to the actual interview. If more than one person is
conducting the interview, each person is usually assigned particular
questions to ask the applicant. The benefit of the structured interview is
that it ensures that all applicants are asked the same basic questions, thus
increasing the ability of the interviewers to compare answers from all the
applicants. The structured interview also tends to keep the interview
team “on task.” The nonstructured interview approach is used when a single
individual (or no more than two or three people) interviews an applicant.
This type of interview tends to be more “free flowing” and often covers a
wide range of areas and issues.
The following are suggestions for interviewers to consider prior to, during,
and after an interview:
• Everything reasonable should be done to make the applicant feel at ease.
This includes making “small talk,” offering the applicant something to drink,
and so on. Most individuals facing an interview are extremely nervous and
tense.
• Everyone conducting or taking part in an interview should thoroughly review
the applicant’s resume and application.
• It is imperative that no one ask illegal questions before, during, or after
the formal interview! These questions may include attempts to elicit
information regarding the applicant’s race, sex, marital status, national
origin, physical limitations, and so on.
• Whenever possible, interviewers should avoid “Yes” and “No” questions.
These questions provide little information concerning the applicant or
his/her ability to achieve what is expected in the position.
• Occasionally, silence is an excellent tool that can be used to “draw out”
additional information from the applicant.
• Never “prehire” at the beginning, during, or at the end of the interview.
In other words, let the applicant know that the application will be reviewed
and considered. This provides additional time for additional reference
checking and evaluation.
• Let all applicants know the timetable for the decision-making process.
• Notify the applicant selected for employment as soon as possible. Make sure
that the applicant is still interested in the position.
• Written notification should be sent to each applicant to advise him/her of
the employment decision. Be extremely careful to not explain the reasons for
the employment decision.
The decision regarding employment tends to be very complex. Individuals
making employment recommendations must evaluate each applicant’s resume,
references, completed application, and interview. The results of interviews
often determine the final decision regarding employment. Following are
some “warning signals” to be aware of concerning interviews:
• Unverifiable references, including listing deceased references.
• If the applicant left a job without providing adequate notice. Try asking
the question, “If you are selected for this position, when could you begin
work?” If the applicant answers “immediately” or “right away” and does not
indicate a willingness to provide a current employer with notice, it
indicates an absence of job loyalty.
• Planning on driving a long distance to work.
• Not appropriately dressed for the interview.
• Negative remarks about either current or past employers.
Web Links
Each student is to access the following Web sites to read additional
information concerning topics presented in this lesson. Some of the readings
will contain information that the students will be tested on. Where possible,
Web sites have been included to present differing views on topics presented
in this lesson.
1. http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm (This article examines
differing ways of looking as curriculum)
2. http://www.andrewseaton.com.au/reform.htm (This is an excellent
article about the need for curriculum reform)
Introduction to Gardening in the Minefield
The objective of this lesson is simply to have each student read this book as
it is written from the perspective of a principal. The book discusses many of
the things that all principals should be aware of, including curriculum
development, leadership, sharing a vision of the school with others, and
pointers about problems that all principals face.
