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Questions and applications derived from the following material will be included in your summer project and the summer project exam. This is fundamentally important material and will be applied throughout the year. Spend time with this information

Observations and Measurements

You will find that both observations and measurements are fundamental to all sciences. When we deal with observations, we are dealing with information obtained directly from any one or a combination of our five senses. It is necessary in certain situations to use instruments to extend our senses. For example, both telescopes and microscopes allow us to see more clearly what our unaided eye can not.

There are two types of observations: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative observations are descriptive in nature – a red star, a swiftly-moving stream, or high-pitched sound. Quantitative observations are measurements expressed with numbers and units of measure – 50 meters, 10 light-years, or 3 m/sec. Quantitative observations are meaningless without units.

In the United States, the units of the U.S. Customary Measure are more commonly used. These include the degree Fahrenheit, the foot and the pound. In the sciences, however, the International System of Units, SI, is preferred. Based on the metric system, SI related smaller and larger units by factors of 10. Thus, converting from one unit to another merely involves changing the decimal point.

Table 1: Basic Units of Measurement Used in Earth Science

Physical Quantity	Metric Basic Unit	Metric Symbol	U.S. Customary Measure
Length	Meter	m	Inch, foot, mile
Mass	Gram	g	Ounce, pound, ton
Time	Second	s	Same as metric
Temperature	Kelvin degree Celsius	K °C	°F °F

Table 2: Common Metric Prefixes

Prefix	Prefix abbreviation	Meaning	Exponential Notation	Multiplication factor
nano-	n	billionth	x 10^-9	0.000 000 001
micro-	μ	millionth	x 10^-6	0.000 001
milli-	m	thousandth	x 10^-3	0.001
centi-	c	hundredth	x 10^-2	0.01
deci-	d	tenth	x 10^-1	0.1
kilo-	k	thousand	x 10³	1 000
mega-	M	million	x 10⁶	1 000 000
giga-	G	billion	x 10⁹	1 000 000 000

The metric system uses a two-part representation of all measurements. The first character or prefix indicates the power of 10 used, while the remainder of the measurement is the base unit. This is illustrated below.

http://faculty.matcmadison.edu/kmirus/Textbooks/804379Text/Measurement.html

Conversions within the metric system are particularly easy. The steps are as follows:

Lay out a chart as shown below.
Locate the starting unit position and the final unit position on this chart and note the direction from the starting unit to the final unit.
Count the number of positions on the chart from the starting unit space to the final unit space.
Move the decimal point of the number part of the measurement the same number of decimal places as the count in Step 3 and in the same direction as noted in Step 2.

move to smaller unit, move decimal to right
move to large unit, move decimal to the left

http://faculty.matcmadison.edu/kmirus/Textbooks/804379Text/Measurement.html

Review and practice your metric skills to check your understanding at: http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson21.htm

Inferences & Predictions

Within the scientific method, scientists use both qualitative and quantitative observations to draw conclusions or make inferences. Inferences are conclusions or logical judgments made on the basis of circumstantial evidence and prior conclusions rather than on the basis of direct observation. Inferences are usually made where direct observation of the event is inconvenient or impossible. For example, you put the trash out in the morning before you leave for school. When you get home from school, you find the trash cans empty. You did not directly see the trash picked up, however, you can infer that it was.

Ex. The inferred age of our solar system is 4.567 billion years.

Ex. Earth’s inferred interior pressure at depth of 3500 km is 1.9 millions of atmospheres.

Ex. Scientists have inferred the structure of Earth’s interior mainly by analyzing Earth’s seismic data.

A prediction is a statement or claim that a particular event will occur in the future based on observation, experience, or scientific reason. Some predictions are based on observations that occur with repetition at distinct intervals. The sun rises every day in a predictable cycle as a result of Earth spinning on its axis. Some predictions are non-cyclic and based on acquired data that is not acquired with repetition at distinct intervals. Predicting that it will be sunny and warm tomorrow is based on current observations on the state of the atmosphere.

Classification

Scientists also have the need to classify data. This involves the act of distributing things into classes or categories of the same type based on similar features and criteria. Bananas and apples are classified as fruits; whereas, pork and ham are classified as meats. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are classified as terrestrial planets; whereas, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are classified as jovian planets.

Accuracy, Precision, and Uncertainty in Measurement

Review and be able to apply all information at http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson22.htm

Factor-Label Method (Dimensional Analysis)

Review and be able to apply all information at

http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson24.htm

Problem Solving with the 5-Step Method

Review and be able to apply all information at

http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/lessons/lesson26.htm

Exponential and Scientific Notation

http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol3/exponents.html

Basic rules: http://www.purplemath.com/modules/exponent.htm

Scientific notation: http://www.purplemath.com/modules/exponent3.htm