In the election of 1908 Republican William Howard Taft ran against Democrat William Jennings Bryan for President. Taft was Roosevelt’s Secretary of War and was handpicked by Roosevelt. As a result of the people’s affection for Roosevelt, they voted for Taft, who easily defeated Bryan.
Taft was to continue Roosevelt’s policies, which he tried to do following a dollar diplomacy policy. He wanted to maintain the Open Door Policy with Asia, especially China. He also sought to preserve stability in Latin America. He practiced “dollars for bullets”, which meant that he invested US money in foreign economies. This increased US influence, but it also created new enemies.
On the domestic front, things were not always rosy, beginning with the Ballinger-Pinchot Affair. Ballinger was the Secretary of the Interior who gave away millions of acres of land in Alaska to a private group. Pinchot was Roosevelt’s Forest Service head who protested what Ballinger was doing and was summarily fired as a result. Congress investigated Ballinger, who resigned. Consequently, during the midterm elections of 1910 the Democrats won the House of Representatives. Roosevelt himself opposed Taft for not continuing his policies.
Therefore, in the election of 1912 Taft ran for reelection and won 23.2% of the popular vote and 8 electoral votes. Theodore Roosevelt ran as a third party candidate from the Bull Moose Party and won 27.4% of the popular vote and 88 electoral votes. (The Bull Moose Party earned its name after Roosevelt was shot giving a speech and finished his speech rather than going to the hospital; he was said to be as strong as a “bull moose”.) Roosevelt advocated a tariff reduction, female suffrage, business regulation, no child labor, 8 hour days, and direct election of senators. Socialist Eugene V. Debs also ran for President and received 6% of the popular vote with no electoral votes. Democrat Woodrow Wilson, who had a PhD in history, received 41.8% of the popular vote and 435 electoral votes. He promised a New Freedom, which called for the enforcement of antitrust laws without disrupting free economic competition.
There were several reforms instituted in the US under President Wilson. First of all, the Federal Trade Commission was established in 1914 to ensure that businesses followed government regulations. Second of all, the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 spelled out illegal business practices for the first time. Third of all, the Federal Reserve System was created in 1913 to replace the Independent Treasury System that had been in place since 1836 (after the death of the Second National Bank). In this system banks borrowed money for short term demands to prevent run-ins and failures. This prevented panics that were common before then. Fourth of all, the Federal Farm Loan Board was created in 1916 gave low interest loans to farmers. Fifth of all, the Department of Labor was created in 1912 to handle labor issues on the national level. Sixth of all, the Sixteenth Amendment was ratified in 1913 to allow a federal income tax for more revenue. Seventh of all, the Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913 to allow for the direct election of senators. Eighth of all, the Eighteenth Amendment was ratified in 1919 to prohibit alcohol. Ninth of all, the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920 to grant female suffrage. Tenth of all, Louis D. Brandeis was the first Jew selected to serve on the Supreme Court, a distinction that he held from 1916 until 1939.
During this period, the suffragist movement thrived. This movement began at Seneca Falls, NY, in 1848, and stalled many times; it sought to grant women the right to vote. Many western states granted female suffrage in the 1890’s and 1910’s, including Wyoming and Colorado. The movement split in two in the 1910’s. More liberal approaches were condemned by one group, and the other group was more politically organized to gain support. This movement gained momentum during World War I, resulting in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.
While all of this was occurring, in Europe World War I (called the Great European War from 1914 to 1917) was breaking out in 1914. During the election of 1916 Wilson ran for reelection with the slogan, “He kept us out of war.” He easily won reelection as a result.
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UNIT XI: WORLD WAR I
From 1914 until 1918 the world was gripped in one of the largest wars fought to that time – known today as World War I, but known then as the Great European War, or the War to End All Wars. There were 5 powers in the world at that time – Germany, who wanted the French region Alsace-Lorraine for its iron and coal deposits; Russia, who constantly sought warm water ports; Austria-Hungary, who sought to keep all parts of its empire united despite its many different ethnicities; France, who wanted to keep Alsace-Lorraine for itself and who constantly quarreled with England; and Great Britain, who continuously fought with France over colonies. Two sides were formed – the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary versus the Allies of France, Great Britain, and Russia. Both sides were equal in strength and ability.
What caused World War I to break out? And more importantly, what led to its escalation to a scale never before imagined possible?
The answer to these questions lies in the complex system of secret treaties and alliances that were created to keep balance of power in Europe after the fall of Napoleon. A quick run down of these secret treaties and alliances will show how complicated the system was. On October 7, 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance, which was a pact that agreed if Russia attacked either member, both would fight Russia together. However, if another nation other than Russia attacked either member, only the attacked member would fight and the other would remain neutral. The exception to this was if that nation other than Russia was an ally of Russia, then both Germany and Austria-Hungary would fight together. All this was written into the document and specified in writing to be kept secret.
On May 20, 1882, the Triple Alliance was created among Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany as an economic treaty. It said that if France attacked either Italy or Germany, all three members would fight together. If a nation other than France attacked any of the three members, then only the attacked member would fight while the other two would remain neutral. These terms were written into the document and specified to be kept secret. However, 2 amendments were added on December 5, 1912, and were also specified to be kept secret. These were that Italy and Germany would keep the status quo in North Africa, but Germany would allow Italian occupation if Italy wanted those areas. If France should threaten Italy in North Africa, all three members would fight France together.
On August 18, 1892, the Franco-Russian Alliance Military Convention was held and was specified to be kept secret. This specified that if Germany alone or with Italy should attack France, both members would fight together. If Germany alone or with Austria-Hungary should attack Russia, both members would fight together. If Germany, Italy, or Austria-Hungary should mobilize anywhere, both France and Russia would mobilize fully.
On April 8, 1904, the Entente Cordiale between the United Kingdom and France was agreed to. It stated that France and Great Britain would keep Africa the same as it was then, but France had free access to the Suez Canal.
In 1907 the Anglo-Russian Entente was created, which said that peace in Persia would be respected because Persia bordered both English colonies and Russia. (These last two documents were not kept secret.)
These secret documents were the underlying causes of the First World War. However, the immediate cause of World War I was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914. In July, 1914, Austria-Hungary demanded reparation from Serbia for the assassination, but Serbia refused. Therefore, Austria-Hungary declared war.
Soon after, the conflict expanded. Serbia had a treaty with Russia that stipulated Russia would protect it if threatened by Austria-Hungary, so Russia mobilized forces. Germany ordered Russia to stop, but Russia did not. Therefore, France began to mobilize as specified by the Franco-Russian Alliance Military Convention. Germany mobilized on two fronts to defend against both enemies and declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. Germany then moved through Luxembourg and Belgium to attack France. Great Britain jumped into the conflict to defend Belgium.
Despite all these secret alliances playing themselves out, the war quickly turned into a stalemate. France and Great Britain used machine guns to halt Germany 30 miles from Paris at River Marne. It evolved into trench warfare where the fronts were held up.
Meanwhile, on the eastern front, Germany and Austria-Hungary pushed Russia out of Belgrade, Serbia, leading to the Ottoman Empire entering the conflict by the end of 1914. Italy fought alongside Germany from 1914 until 1915 but switched sides in the spring of 1915.
The war was the first to use modern warfare such as hand grenades, machine guns, mustard gas, and tanks. There was no distinction between civilians and soldiers. U-boats (German submarines) attacked ships going through blockades. The war became a war of attrition, a war in which the enemy is worn down by mounting losses.
How did America react to the war? Because immigrants from across Europe entered the US, it was not going to be easy to satisfy the full population as far as what side to take. Many immigrants still had strong connections to their motherlands. German and Irish Americans hated Britain and wanted the US to side with Germany, but many Americans opposed Kaiser Wilhelm, who had unlimited power. Others were neutral and interested in expanding trade. Therefore, the US declared neutrality to protect business interests and to make peace. However, the US prepared for war just in case Great Britain needed help.
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If the US declared neutrality, how did the US enter the war? German U-boat warfare attacking neutral ships passing through blockades changed public opinion about Germany. U-boats surprised enemy ships without any warnings contrary to custom at the time. This tactic helped to break the British blockade of German ports. However, it was also practiced on neutral ships. On May 7, 1915, the Lusitania was sunk by U-boats, killing 128 Americans. Germany warned the US to stay out of the British Isles. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan demanded reparations from Germany, but Germany refused. He later resigned when he was told to send a note to the British about their blockade of German ports. However, his successor convinced Germany to warn neutral ships about possible U-boat attacks, but Germany had wanted the power to search and seize any vital cargo on these ships.
In 1916 Woodrow Wilson was reelected with the slogan, “He kept us out of war”. However, Germany continued U-boat attacks without warning on February 1, 1917. The US and Germany broke diplomatic ties. This was the beginning of US involvement in the war basically. Germany aligned with Mexico and encouraged Mexico to take back Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. This was negotiated by the German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman. The so called Zimmerman Note was discovered and revealed. That same year, unfortunately, the Russian Revolution was fought because of the heavy casualties and loss of land to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Czar Nicholas II was overthrown and replaced with a republican government. With all these events unfolding in 1917, Wilson asked for a declaration op war and signed it on April 6, 1917.
American troops would be fresh on the battle field and not worn down by low morale. However, American involvement in the fighting was a slow process. The US was seen as an associate who lent $3 billion dollars in loans, supplies, naval support, and arms but not necessarily troops. The Allies had asked for troops to boost morale so General John J. Pershing was dispatched overseas with 14,500 men to France with the title of the American Expeditionary Force.
Draftees and volunteers increased due to the draft of 1917. People were happy to participate in the “war to end all wars”. Three million draftees and volunteers were added to the American Expeditionary Force. Women helped out as nurses and phone operators. A convoy system was established to allow for destroyers to escort US troops overseas for U-boat protection.
When our forces entered Europe, they received a different welcome than they had hoped for. US troops were kept as reinforcements in the fighting by French officers. There was segregation in the ranks, as was the practice at the time. The 369th Infantry Regiment (Harlem Hell Fighters) won the Croix de Guerre from France.
New factors were brought about by the war. In November, 1917, Vladimir Lenin set up communist rule in Russia and made peace with Germany on March 3, 1918, through the treaty of Brest-Litovsk. A civil war erupted in Russia, but the treaty closed the eastern front for Germany, enabling it to fight a 1 front war. There was heavy fighting in France only 56 miles from Paris. The US fought Germany, winning the Battle of Cantigny in May, 1918, shifting the tide of war.
The Allies were finally able to counterattack and the Americans were given their own right to fight. The US won the Battle of Belleau Wood Chateau-Thierry in June, 1918. The US also won other battles from then until November, 1918. The British used tanks for the first time at Amiens on August 8, 1918, that ultimately convinced Germany to seek peace. The Allies used planes to attack for the first time. An armistice (ceasefire) was signed and in effect beginning the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. Kaiser Wilhelm fled Germany before the armistice.
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The US needed to alter domestically in order to fight a war that was waged thousands of miles away. Never before had the US fought a war so far from its shores. Therefore, new planning was needed to ensure success. To finance the war, higher taxes were levied and Liberty Bonds were issued to lend money to the Allies at low interest rates. These could have been redeemed with interest.
New government agencies were created to manage the economy during wartime. Some of these included the War Industrial Board led by Bernard Baruch to give raw materials to factories, stipulate what and how much to produce, and fix prices. The Fuel Administration was created to conserve fuel; this board created Daylight Savings Time to allow for more daylight hours to accomplish its task. The War Trade Board punished firms for trading with the enemy. The National War Labor Board was established in April, 1918, by William Howard Taft to mediate labor disputes. The War Policies Board standardized wages, hours, and working conditions to prevent strikes.
New regulations were enforced to allow Americans at home to do their share in the war. The Food Administration was created in 1917 by Herbert Hoover to increase food yield and reduce waste. In addition, Meatless Tuesdays were introduced to aid in this endeavor, but this was a voluntary restraint.
Propaganda was prevalent to convince Americans to support the war. It was led by the Committee on Public Information. Immigrants (especially from Germany) were arrested and observed for sabotage as a means to boost patriotism. Freedoms were restricted. The Espionage Act of 1917 made draft dodging illegal, the Sedition Act of 1918 made it a crime to verbally attack the US (especially by communists), and publications were censored.
However, there were social changes brought about by the war. Women and minority groups were hired to replace those who went overseas to fight and immigrants. Their pay increased as a result. The 18th Amendment was proposed in 1917 and ratified in 1919 to keep the grain for food.
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As World War I was drawing to a close, President Wilson began envisioning the peace proposal that would officially end the hostilities. He drew up 14 points called the 14 Points. These included an end to secret alliances, the restoration of freedom of the seas, a reduction of armaments, a respect for native populations in colonies, self-determination for Austria-Hungary whereby its individual sections would decide their futures on their own, and establishing a League of Nations which would be a single body to secure peace throughout the world.
At the Peace Conference in Paris, France, in January, 1919, the Big 4 (France, Great Britain, Italy, and the US) basically dictated the terms of peace. No Representatives or Senators went with Wilson to the conference. Europe wanted Germany’s colonies, and France wanted to humiliate Germany further. The Russian civil war included France, Great Britain, and the US as well. The three European nations of the Big 4 rejected self-determination, but the idea of the League of Nations was accepted as long as the view that an attack on one was an attack on all.
The Treaty of Versailles was the peace treaty that resulted. It established the League of Nations – the only point of Wilson’s that was accepted. France was given control of Alsace-Lorraine for 15 years. New nations were created, including Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia (from the Austro-Hungarian Empire), Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in Europe; it split Austria-Hungary into Austria and Hungary; it created Turkey from the Ottoman Empire; it ended the Ottoman Empire; and it created the nations of Syria, Iraq, Trans-Jordan (Jordan), Palestine, and Lebanon from the Ottoman Empire. It set war reparations from Germany to the Allied powers at $33 billion, and it was signed in June, 1919.
The US Senate opposed the League of Nations because it would create a weak American independence. Wilson traveled the country giving speeches to convince Americans to pressure Congress to ratify the treaty, but he had a stroke during his barnstorming tour. Congress did not ratify the treaty, but it did declare the war officially over in May, 1920. Wilson vetoed the measure so Congress re-voted, and President Harding (who succeeded Wilson) signed it. The US negotiated separate peace agreements with Germany, Austria, and Hungary in October, 1921.
As a result of the war, the US became the richest nation in the world and was owed a total of $11.5 billion. Servicemen had no jobs as the army began downsizing for peace time numbers, and women lost jobs when the men returned home.
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UNIT XII: THE INTERIM PERIOD
During President Wilson’s second term (1917-1921), the US fought in and won WWI. However, returning vets were unemployed and took the jobs that had been held by minorities and women for a brief period of time while the vets served overseas. The cost of living skyrocketed, and food prices plummeted as the European nations began growing food again. Unions increased membership and strikes became common over the issues of the number of hours required to work and pay.
Social changes occurred in the US, beginning with the Red Scare because the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was formed. Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks adopted the red flag of a hammer and sickle as their flag. Communism was established by the government; the US, Britain, France, and Japan fought in the USSR to protect their interests there. Communism was blamed for strikes because “Communists were taking over the country.” This idea led to raids of suspected socialist groups. One such incident was the Sacco and Vanzetti case. They were convicted of murder more because they were anarchists than they actually did it. They were electrocuted in 1927.
Leisure activities cropped up as a result of fewer working hours. Radio linked people to games and shows over wide areas. Movies became popular with MGM, Warner Brothers, and Columbia (the first “talkie” was the Jazz Singer with Al Jolson in 1927).
In the election of 1920 Wilson could not run for a third term because of his poor health caused by a stroke suffered from his barnstorming days. Therefore, the Democrats selected a different candidate to run against Republican Warren G. Harding, who won with his idea of returning to normalcy and isolation. A new nativist movement led to a decrease in immigration.
Under Harding female suffrage did not act as a voting bloc. African-Americans moved from the south to the north, which led to race riots. There was a Harlem Renaissance during this time, which led to a huge popularity of jazz and African-American culture.
However, Harding was blemished with the outbreak of the Teapot Dome Scandal, which was exposed after his death in on August 2, 1923. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall had leased government oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, to two oil companies. He had received $300,000 in loans from the companies.
Calvin Coolidge, who was Vice-President, finished Harding’s term until 1925. He ran for election in his own right in 1924 and won. His Vice-President was Charles Dawes. Coolidge supported big business. In fact, in his inaugural address, he stated, “The chief business of the American people is business.” To support business, he imposed high tariffs.
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Life in the Roaring Twenties was different in the US than ever before. Sports heroes abounded in the US with figures like Babe Ruth of baseball, Jack Dempsey of boxing, Gertrude Ederle of tennis. Movie heroes also abounded with actors like Charlie Chaplin. Aviation heroes also sparked the imagination with heroes like Charles Lindbergh from Minnesota, who was an air mail pilot. He vied for a $25,000 prize to fly nonstop across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927. He flew the Spirit of St. Louis. New products entered life, such as chain supermarkets with brand names. Products were sold by door to door salesmen. Ford introduced the assembly line, resulting in the skyrocketing of auto sales.
Prohibition became part of life in this era. Speakeasies (secret bars) sprouted up to sell liquor. Bootleggers (mafia) produced liquor illegally, such as Al Capone in Chicago. Fundamentalism dominated the day’s thinking. This philosophy preached that the Bible was true. It opposed evolution, and led to the Scopes’ Trial. This was all about Scopes teaching evolution in a public high school. It was widely aired over radio. The KKK reappeared, and they targeted all groups who were non-WASP. Literature showed a backlash against Roaring Twenties, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.
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In the election of 1928 the Republicans selected Herbert Hoover as their candidate as opposed to Calvin Coolidge. He was popular from his work from World War I and the Cabinet posts that he had held in the 1920’s. He easily won along with his running mate Charles Curtis against the Democratic candidate Al Smith, who was a Catholic against Prohibition. He won 12 of the largest cities as well as the farm areas, which were both signs of economic unrest. In fact, the economic picture was bleak and getting worse.
People were optimistic because of advances in medicine against diseases and because of the booming economy. Infant mortality dropped as life expectancy increased. The stock market was valued at $27 billion in 1925 and at $87 billion by 1929. Real wages (what money could actually buy) was up by 40% and the unemployment rate was beneath 4%. However, people borrowed money to buy stocks, and the government did nothing to stop this. Trouble signs began appearing as only the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. Huge corporations made most business in the economy (49%), and only 0.1% of the population was wealthy (made more than $100,000). This very miniscule percentage had the most savings (34% of their income), and 71% of the population earned less than $2500 a year. 80% had no savings. Simultaneously, personal debt increased because of credit borrowing. Money was borrowed to buy goods, and installment buying became common. People paid money with interest over a few months. There was widespread speculation (people paid for stocks hoping the price would increase). Buying-on-margin became the practice of the day, whereby people paid 10%-50% of the price of the stock and borrowed the rest. Warehouses were overstocked because of these practices since production exceeded demand in hopes that people would eventually the goods. Farm prices dropped so low paid farmers were in debt before 1929.
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In November, 1928, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (the average of the stock prices of leading industries) was 191, but it rose to 313 by March 4, 1929. Why? Brokers urged people to buy stocks to push the price up. By September 3, 1929, the average reached 381. Stocks rose far above normal prices because a company had a certain amount of Money, but so many people bought stocks, pushing the prices up. Prices, however, began falling on September 4, 1929, until Wednesday, October 23. People sold their stocks in a panic on Thursday, October 24, even willing to accept losses. For example, GE stock sold at $400 a share, but it traded at $283 a share. The government tried to ease fears, but on Tuesday, October 29, 16 million shares were sold, resulting in a $30 billion loss. Millionaires became poor overnight. Loans from buying-on-margin had to be paid off, but no one had any money to pay them. Only investors were affected first, then the US, then the world. This was the Great Depression.
The effects of the Great Depression were massive. Profits fell so pay cuts and firings became common. Thousands were unemployed. By 1932 13 million people were unemployed (this was a quarter of the work force). Unemployment insurance did not exist yet, so these people had no assistance.
The Gross National Product (GNP), which is the annual value of all goods and services produced in the US, dropped from $103 billion in 1929 to $56 billion in 1933. Small businesses closed because no one could afford to buy goods, farm prices fell, and – as if that was not bad at all – the Dust Bowl swept the nation in the 1930’s. That was the biggest drought the nation had ever seen. Millions of people withdrew money from banks so thousands of banks failed.
The Great Depression spread worldwide due to the interdependence of nations created after World War I. The US wanted Britain and France to pay off their war debts. However, they could not pay their debts because the US kept high tariffs, preventing them from making money from trade. They demanded that Germany pay its war reparations to them so they could afford to pay the US, BUT the US traded with Germany so reparations continued. However, when the US lost money, the trade stopped, so Germany stopped making money and could not pay Britain and France, and they could not pay us so we could not give money to Germany.
The causes of the Great Depression were several. Firstly, stocks were used as collateral (security) for loans even though people borrowed money to buy them. There was little money in circulation. Uneven wealth distribution existed so only a few families were wealthy.
The Great Depression affected the US socially as well. People were evicted for failing to pay rent, even though they did not have jobs because no jobs could be found. Banks closed by the thousands. Cities began producing Hoovervilles (cars, cardboard boxes, etc) to live in as they became homeless. Farms were repossessed because mortgage payments were not paid since farmers could not afford them due to low farm prices. The victims of the Dust Bowl left for states that had big cities.
Problems abounded during this era. Suicide caused by the anxiety of losing everything increased. Starvation on a wide scale existed due to an inadequate diet. Children suffered the most here. Apples were sold by people for as little as 5 cents. Starving people fought over garbage to eat. Some people grew “relief gardens”, which were gardens at home to grow food to eat. As far as the family was concerned, households became overcrowded as the entire family crammed into a single dwelling to live together. Divorce dropped as people could not afford to pay lawyers. Men were embarrassed t stop working if their wives still worked. Married women lost their jobs to allow their husbands to work. This last item was endorsed by the American Federation of Labor in 1931. Women were paid less than men. Discrimination soared as lynching rose, and African-Americans lost their jobs to whites.
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How did people survive the Great Depression? At first, there was some relief, such as soup kitchens and breadlines from churches. People bought auctioned farms and returned them to their original owners. Others fed the homeless.
Amazingly, no riots or rebellions erupted, but the Communist Party grew in membership. Socialists advocated gradual social and economic changes but not revolution. People began to cope with the situation by telling jokes about it. The 21st Amendment repealed Prohibition in 1933 to end the bootlegging operations. The Empire State Building opened in 1932 and gave the US hope. It was 102 stories and 1250 feet high, making it the tallest building in the world at that time.
In the election of 1932 the failed attempts by Hoover to change the economy was the major issue. He blamed Europe for the depression (“The US is suffering because of problems in Europe, not the crash.”). He asked people to volunteer to moderate spending/saving. Government programs created public works, like Boulder Dam (Hoover Dam) in 1930 as well as local relief programs. His finances were also questionable. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 raised import tariffs to unprecedented rates, creating backlashes overseas and slowing international trade. War debts were suspended but Europe continued to weaken economically anyway. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) gave government credit to banks so loans could be extended, but the banks still failed. Government lent money to local governments for relief, but it was too little too late. He opposed the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes, who advocated huge government spending on programs to encourage people to spend. World War I vets marched on the White House lawn demanding a pension bonus in 1932. This march (called the Bonus Army) was broken up by force by the US Army.
Hoover ran against the Democratic candidate Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Hoover was nominated by the Republicans in June, 1932, and FDR was nominated by the Democrats in July, 1932. FDR was a Harvard graduate who was a NYS Senator for 2 terms in Albany. He then served as the assistant secretary of the navy under Wilson and ran for the Vice-Presidency in 1920. He became a victim of polio in 1921 at the age of 39, and he still managed to serve as NY governor from 1929 until 1932. His wife Eleanor pushed for aid for women.
The results of the election were phenomenal. FDR won 472 electoral votes and 22.8 million popular votes while Hoover won only 59 electoral votes and 15.7 million popular votes. This started the age of social activism (the President became involved in people’s lives). His inaugural speech stated, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
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FDR’s first term was one of intense work, especially in the first 100 days. His Vice-President from 1933 to 1937 was John Garner. FDR proposed a New Deal for the first 100 days. It was his plan to fight the depression, and his wife Eleanor traveled the nation to push for its support. The first 100 days ran from March 4 until June 12, 1933. The New Deal had three components – relief, recovery, and reform. All three areas required legislation.
As far as relief was concerned, all banks were closed to be inspected by Congress through the Emergency Banking Act (1933) from March 6 until March 15. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insured deposits up to $5,000. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) sent funds to relief agencies under Harry Hopkins. Public works programs (government funded projects to build public facilities) included the Civil Works Administration (CWA) to hire unemployed people to build roads, parks, airports, etc. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) put 2.5 million single men to work in parks and forests at $1 a day. The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) returned land to Native Americans.
As far as recovery was concerned, the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June, 1933, allowed trade associations in industries to develop codes for wages, conditions, production, and prices. This resulted in the creation of the minimum wage and collective bargaining. It consisted of the National Recovery Act (NRA) in the fall of 1933 to control the new codes, but wages and prices increased, stopping the poor from buying and ending recovery for a time. In 1935 it was declared unconstitutional because it gave FDR legislative power to regulate local trade and not interstate commerce. NIRA also consisted of the Public Works Administration (PWA), which built the Triborough Bridge and the causeway between Key West and Florida.
Other aspects of recovery included the Federal Securities Act (May, 1933), which required full disclosure of stocks, and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulated the stock market as of 1934. The Federal Reserve System began regulating buying on margin as of 1934, and the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced the mortgages of middle income home owners. The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) tried to increase farm prices by paying farmers to not grow certain crops, but it was declared unconstitutional in 1936. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), beginning in May, 1933, helped farmers and created power for the Tennessee River Valley.
All these programs were established by a “Brain Trust”, a group of intellectuals who helped FDR to plan his policies. It included Frances Perkins (the Secretary of Labor), who was the first woman on the Cabinet. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the New Deal in a paper column entitled “My Day”.
The mid-term elections of 1934 saw Democrats elected in large numbers, so it was a sign for a second New Deal in 1935. Reform programs were instituted for social welfare benefits, stricter controls over business, stronger support for unions, and higher taxes on the rich.
As far as reform was concerned, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935 lasted 8 years and employed 8 million people. It constructed and improved 20,000 playgrounds, schools, hospitals, and airfields. In May, 1935, the Resettlement Administration loaned money to small farm owners and resettled tenant farmers and sharecroppers on productive land to respond to their sufferings. The Resettlement Administration was replaced by the Farm Security Administration (FSA) in 1937, which lent $1 billion to farmers.
After NIRA was declared unconstitutional, labor legislation was passed. The Wagner Act – or the National Labor Relations Act – was named after Senator Robert Wagner of NY. It allowed closed shops for union members only and collective bargaining. It also outlawed spying on union activities and blacklisting of union members, and it established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to oversee its enforcement. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 ended child labor and established a minimum wage.
The Social Security Act of 1935 established a system for old age pensions, benefits to victims’ families of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and aid for dependent mothers, children, the blind, and the physically challenged. It was based on European welfare programs whereby workers paid into the system to support the system.
The election of 1936 featured FDR winning all the states except Maine and Vermont against Republican Alfred M. Landon from Kansas, who won those two states. Socialist Norman Thomas won fewer than 200,000 popular votes and Communist Earl Browder won 80,000 popular votes. The Democratic Party became a party for farmers, recent immigrants, skilled and unskilled workers, northern African-Americans, women, and union members. This is still true today.
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Even though the New Deal helped a great deal of Americans and helped to pull the nation out of the Great Depression, people still criticized it and its programs. The Fair Labor Standards Act covered only a quarter of all workers and set the minimum wage too low. Women were not given jobs if men sought work, and their pay was still lower than men’s pay. African-Americans did not receive jobs at the federal level and were paid even less than women. They did not work on any big projects from the public works programs, and they received no social security. They were the last ones hired but the first ones fired. They were often lynched, and they sought help from FDR through other programs. The political right was conservatives who wanted to preserve the current system opposed by FDR. They felt that only the wealthy people taxed in the New Deal, the TVA was socialistic, the Social Security Act penalized hard workers and could lead to militarism, and that the New Deal was limiting and unconstitutional. Meanwhile, the political left was liberals who supported change to help commoners. They felt that the New Deal did not do much, communists pushed for state ownership of farms and factories, and redistribution of income was needed.
Other critics of the New Deal included Fr. Charles E. Coughlin, who aired messages over radio attacking the New Deal because it was capitalism. Huey Long (Kingfish) advocated redistribution of wealth. The Supreme Court (with 4 conservatives) struck the AAA and NRA as unconstitutional, so in February, 1937, FDR proposed to add 1 new justice for each one over 70 years old (6 in all) for a total of 15 justices. He proposed this because he wanted justices who supported the New Deal. People feared that FDR was becoming another Hitler, Mussolini, or Stalin so he withdrew his proposal.
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FDR ran for reelection in 1936 and won overwhelmingly. His running mate and Vice-President from 1937 until 1941 was Henry Wallace. In 1937 there was an economic collapse partly because of Social Security payments, which lowered income. Less income translated into fewer purchases. Some public works programs stopped. The national debt (money the US owed banks) rose from $21 billion in 1933 to $43 billion in 1940 as a result of New Deal programs. Suspended New Deal programs were reinstituted in 1938.
Union membership rose from 3 million in 1933 to 10.5 million in 1941. Membership in unions rose from 28% of the workforce in 1941 to 36% in 1945. In 1935 the United Mine Workers president John L. Lewis formed the Committee for Industrial Organizations (CIO) to organize unskilled workers within the AFL. The AFL opposed the CIO, but the CIO thrived anyway. In 1938 the CIO changed to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The Wagner Act could not force businesses to accept labor demands so sit down strikes prevailed. Workers during these strikes refused to leave the premises and picket lines prevented substitute workers from entering. This started at GM’s Fisher auto body plants in Akron, Ohio, in 1936 to 1937 when violence erupted and police could not control the strikers.
Cultural life in the US reflected these changes as well. In literature, The Good Earth (1931) was published by Pearl Buck about peasant struggles in China. The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck was about Dust Bowlers who moved to California. Gone With the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell was about the Old South. In radio and movies culture was reflected also. Comedies by Jack Benny, George Burns, and Fred and Gracie Allen dominated the radio as did soap operas sponsored by soap companies that appealed to women’s emotions. Symphony and orchestral performances also played over radio waves. In the movie theaters double features began playing in 1931 followed by drive-ins in 1933. Hollywood capitalized on this period with films such as Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) about a normal guy overcoming hardship. The Marx Brothers and Charlie Chaplin dominated comedies, and gangster films as well as musicals dominated theaters. Walt Disney delighted audiences with Mickey Mouse and Snow White (1937). The Wizard of Oz (1939) also warmed viewers’ hearts. The WPA funded artists, musicians, theaters, writers, and historians.
The legacy of the New Deal included public buildings like dams, tunnels, bridges, schools, hospitals, etc. It also included conservation projects, and long lasting policies such as the TVA, FDIC, SEC, and Social Security.
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UNIT XIII: WORLD WAR II
As soon as it became clear that the African War, the Asian War, and the European War being fought in 1941 involved the US officially, World War II emerged, since it now involved the US as well. New strategies were needed. The Allies wanted to win the war unconditionally, meaning the enemy had to be defeated entirely, and the US pushed for shaping the peace that would result. In early 1941, FDR delivered his famous “Four Freedoms Speech” – freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. That summer FDR and Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter off the coast of Newfoundland, which sought to guarantee self-determination for all nations so that they could pick their own government, equal trading rights so all nations could share in the world’s wealth, and security to keep peace. Allied objectives included fighting an offensive war against the Nazis and a defensive war against the Japanese until Germany was defeated because Germany was viewed as the bigger threat.
Since World War II melded three different wars together, there were three fronts to fight. The first front was Europe, where Germany controlled almost the entire continent as a result of its blitzkrieg. The blitzkrieg ended in the Battle of Britain (July, 1940 to June, 1941), during which the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed Britain incessantly until the Nazis shifted from bombing military targets to bombing civilian targets. Up until this time all fighting in Europe was on the western half because of the non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR. However, in 1942 since Hitler distrusted Stalin, he ordered the Nazis to invade Russia, which they did. Soviet Russia purposely retreated further inland to allow the Nazis to take as much territory as possible because they waited for winter to arrive first. The Nazis were not equipped to fight in a Russian winter, but the Soviets were. As it turned out, the winter of 1942-1943 was one of the worst winters in Russian history. This opened a second front in Europe. However, most of the fighting in Europe from 1942 until 1944 was only in the east.
The second front was North Africa. Field Marshall Erwin Rommell (“The Desert Fox”) took Morocco to Libya. Germany basically fought Britain here as well as in Europe.
The third front was the Pacific. The Japanese controlled most of South and East Asia. The US fleet, except the aircraft carriers, was destroyed after Pearl Harbor. China was weak, India was endangered, and Australia was threatened. Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, and Singapore were taken by Japan. In the spring of 1942 Japan took the Philippines, but General Douglass MacArthur promises, “I shall return” on March 10, 1942.
The Second World War featured many turning points since there were many fronts to fight. These turning points all occurred in 1942. The first was the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943), which featured house to house fighting for four months. This was a Soviet victory, and it proved that Hitler had made the same mistake as Napoleon. In September, 1942, Germany began bombing Stalingrad while 300,000 German soldiers waited. The USSR lost more lives in this single battle than the US did in the entire war.
Atlantic operations used radar, which was invented by the British and first used in the Battle of Britain, to locate U-boats.
The second turning point was in North Africa. In 1943 there was a meeting in Casablanca among FDR, Churchill, and Stalin in which Stalin asked FDR and Churchill to open a western front in Europe, but the two men focused instead on the Germans in North Africa. Operation Torch was the name given to the North African strategy, which began in November, 1942, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Morocco and Algeria fell, and in May, 1943, Rommell’s Afrika Corps lost the Battle of Tunisia.
The third turning point was the Battle of Sicily (July, 1943), which featured an amphibious assault to take Sicily from Germany, followed by the invasion of south Italy at Anzio (1944), leading to the capture of Rome in 1944.
The fourth turning point was the Battle of Midway, launched by Japan to destroy the US carriers. Japan wanted Australia as a base to attack Midway, but the US intercepted the message. The Battle of the Coral Sea slowed Japan’s invasion of Australia. On June 4, 1942, the Battle of Midway began with Japan destroying US planes sent by Admiral Chester Nimitz. US dive bombers had destroyed Japanese carriers, virtually ending Japan’s power.
The fifth turning point was the Battle of Guadalcanal in August, 1942. It was an offensive led by the US in the Pacific. On August 7, 1942, US marines landed, but Japan had heavily fortified the island. This fortification was believed to lead to victory. In November, 1942, the battle ended with the US controlling the waters and denying Japanese reinforcements from entering the island. By February, 1943, the US firmly controlled the island. This began the famous “island hopping” campaign (attack a few islands until the US reached Japan).
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World War II was filled with many major battles fought across the globe, involving more than 85 nations. In the Pacific the Battle of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa ultimately led to the fall of Japan. Since Africa was finished with its fighting and Japan was on its way to defeat in a matter of time, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin met in Tehran, Iran, in 1943 to discuss the invasion of France finally. Operation Overlord was the plan for the invasion. It would guarantee German liberation from the Nazis. D-Day began at dawn on June 6, 1944, and was the largest amphibious invasion in history. 150,000 soldiers on 4,600 ships entered France along 60 miles of beach in Normandy. Germany had expected a larger invasion at Calais, the shortest distance from Britain to France, so no German reinforcements were sent to Normandy. Eisenhower oversaw the invasion, which ended in July, 1944, when a million troops were stationed in France. This invasion led to the liberation of Paris in August, 1944, as well as Brussels in Belgium and Antwerp several days later. In December, 1944, the Battle of the Bulge was fought as part of a German counterattack (the last German offensive in the war), creating a bulge in the Allied front in Belgium and Luxembourg. It ended in January, 1945. This helped the US and Britain to push inland from west to east as the USSR pushed westward. The war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945.
A horrific feature of World War II was the Holocaust, or the Final Solution, resulted in the creation of concentration camps across Europe, especially in Eastern Europe, where millions of non-Aryans (specifically Jews) were exterminated. The biggest concentration camps were Auschwitz in Poland and Dachau in Germany. 6 million Jews were exterminated and 5 million Slavs, gypsies, and others through gas chambers and experiments.
FDR, Churchill, and Stalin met in Yalta in 1945 for a conference to discuss how to end the war. They agreed that Germany should split into reorganization zones, a government should be set up in Poland, and the USSR would help the US fight Japan 3 months after the defeat of Germany.
On April 30, 1945, Hitler committed suicide in his bunker to avoid capture, and on May 8, 1945, Berlin was taken, ending the European phase of the war (V-E Day, Victory in Europe Day). Meanwhile, in the Pacific a couple more battles were waged. The Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944) was fought, resulting in the liberation of the Philippines. The US bombed Hiroshima with “Little Boy” (an uranium bomb) on August 6, 1945, followed by Nagasaki with “Fat Man” (a plutonium bomb) on August 9, 1945. On September 2, 1945, Japan finally surrendered.
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Many changes were introduced to the world during and after World War II, especially in the area of technology. Maneuvrable aircraft were introduced to the world as well as naval battles that did not feature ships – as was the case in the Pacific. Radar and sonar were invented to detect enemy craft approaching and first used in the Battle of Britain. The atomic bomb was invented by Albert Einstein as part of the Manhattan Project and utilized. The Manhattan Project was a research project from 1939 until 1945 and involved physicists from across the world who aided Einstein. Germany was constructing an atomic bomb, but the scientists were rushed out of Germany and into the US. $2 billion were spent on the research, producing the first fission in a lab in December, 1942, in Chicago by Enrico Fermi. The creation of plutonium followed, and on July 16, 1945, the first bomb was detonated in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Damage was caused 125 miles away.
The election of 1944 rolled around, featuring FDR running for a fourth term, this time with running mate Harry S. Truman, who never knew about the Manhattan Project. The alternatives to defeating Japan were dropping A-bombs, invade (but 1 million casualties might result), a naval blockade, or soften the “unconditional surrender” by keeping the Japanese emperor on the throne.
Two fronts existed in World War II – the war front and the home front. Both featured changes. Firstly, the war front saw women serve as typists, clerks, escorters, test pilots. African-Americans were segregated, but they had been integrated by 1945. Mexican-Americans fought bravely in the army. Navajo Native Americans contributed their language to serve as our code during the war; it was undecodable. Japanese-Americans fought bravely in the navy.
As far as the home front was concerned, there was a shift to wartime production. The auto industry manufactured planes for the war, not cars. Cost-plus systems were introduced, where the government paid the costs plus more for all companies who helped in the war production. Union membership rose. Federal spending increased from $9.4 billion in 1939 to $95.2 billion in 1945, and the GNP more than doubled. Taxes increased, and bonds were sold to pay for the war effort, creating a huge debt. This led to deficit spending (government spent borrowed money).
Life in the US changed as well. The baby boom began in 1940 as more and more people found work. New leisure activities crept up, such as paperbacks and movies. Baseball resorted to replacement players to keep the baseball season moving along. Music pushed patriotism. Sugar, coffee, and meat became scarce so rationing of these items became commonplace. More women (single, married, young, old) took jobs vacated by men because Rosie the Riveter encouraged them. However, they quit or lost their jobs as the men returned home from the war.
The fight for equality continued as African-Americans became integrated in the North, but they were discriminated against in education, housing, and employment. There was still segregation in the South and the military. Executive Order 8802 opened up jobs despite race. Mexican-Americans were trained in vocational schools for war work. Braceros (workers) from Mexico were brought to US and sent back after the war. Wages were withheld, and riots erupted as a result. Native Americans enlisted or worked in factories, as code breakers, or as code talkers. Japanese-Americans were interned in the Midwest by Executive Order 9066. The internment camps featured barbed wire and armed guards. Bathroom and eating facilities were communal. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team (all Japanese-Americans) won the most bravery medals in US history. Japanese-Americans received an apology from the US government in the early 1990’s.
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UNIT XIV: THE COLD WAR AND BEYOND
When FDR died before the end of WWII, his Vice-President Harry S. Truman assumed the office. He did not have a Vice-President. His term began with the decision in 1945 to drop the atomic bomb on Japan and ended in 1949. He was the first President of the Cold War, a period of tension between the only remaining superpowers after WWII – the US and the USSR. The Cold War could be traced back to the Tehran Conference in 1943 and the Yalta Conference in 1945 among the Big Three – FDR, Churchill, and Stalin. The three men decided that Germany should be partitioned among France, Britain, the US, and the USSR. They also decided that Poland would have democratic elections to build a government sympathetic to the USSR. There was a delay in opening the western front in France that also contributed to the Cold War. The Potsdam Conference of 1945 saw Truman hint at the existence of an atomic bomb, which Stalin had already known about through spies. The US fought WWII for democracy while the USSR wanted a buffer in the west between the USSR and Europe to help proletariats (workers) take control over totalitarianism (total, absolute power with fear instilled in the people). The USSR took Poland in 1945, and in 1946 Stalin swore that he would build up the military to keep the USSR strong against the US. Churchill, in 1946, stated that an “iron curtain” had descended from the Baltic to the Adriatic (encompassing Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria, which all became satellites of the USSR).
Immediately after WWII the United Nations was established in 1945 as an international peacekeeping organization, and it succeeded as a result of the US joining it. In April, 1945, 50 nations comprised membership after meeting in San Francisco to sign the United Nations Charter and to set rules for its governance. They agreed to settle disagreements peacefully, prevent war and end all current wars, establish a General Assembly for all nations to participate in, and establish a Security Council of 11 nations, 6 of which would rotate membership but 5 of which would be permanent members with a veto power (the US, the USSR, England, France, and China).
Truman showed in what direction he wanted the US to move in when he issued his famous Monroe Doctrine in 1946. It was to prevent the spread of communism through containment. The doctrine was first attempted in 1947 when Greece and Turkey could no longer gain British money. The US feared that both nations would fall as a result so the US stepped in financially. The fear was that if Greece fell to communism, a domino effect throughout Europe would result. In a speech in 1947 Truman said that the US needed to aid all peoples in danger of subjugation; Congress appropriated $400 million for Greece and Turkey as a result. That same year Secretary of State George C. Marshall advocated containment and tried to prevent the spread of Soviet influence by proposing his Marshall Plan. Europe needed to draw up a plan for recovery programs and the US would lend money to them for the programs. The USSR and its satellites were also included in the plan, but they refused our aid. Sixteen European nations accepted the proposal, and the US lent them $13 billion by 1952 for the programs and for recovery. The ironic part was that West Germany accepted the plan, but not East Germany; West Berlin (located in East Germany) also accepted the plan, but not East Berlin. In June, 1948, the USSR blockaded West Berlin to prevent the US from sending in aid, so the Berlin Airlift began operation until September, 1949, to fly supplies into West Berlin.
Changes were taking place in the US, beginning with the 22nd Amendment in 1951 (first proposed in 1947), which set term limits for the presidency at two terms or ten years maximum (should a Vice-President assume the office so that he could hold two terms for himself).
The Middle East began to become a hotly contested region in this period because of its rich oil fields. The US, Britain, and the USSR occupied Iran during WWII until 1946. The US and Britain left after WWII, but not the USSR until the US threatened to go to war with them. The UN created Israel for Jews in May, 1948. Immediately, violence erupted among Jews and Palestinians over the creation of Israel. Both the US and the USSR recognized Israel as a nation. Israel took the Gaza Strip and the West Bank from Palestine. The US tried to maintain ties with the Arab world after all these events, but it did not always succeed.
Baseball finally desegregated in 1947 with Jackie Robinson in 1947, and the military followed suit in 1948.
Given the signs of the times between democracy and communism, the Federal Employee Loyalty Program was established in 1947 by Truman to pursue those who participated in suspicious activities. The House Un-American Committee (HUAC) had looked into disloyalty before WWII but now focused on Hollywood. HUAC was created in 1937. As a result of these two organizations, espionage cases flared up, such as in the case of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg who were accused of being spies sending atomic secrets to the USSR. They were executed in 1953.
Truman proposed a Fair Deal in 1946 to allow for the reconversion of the economy from wartime production to peacetime production. Prices soared but not wages so strikes became common in 1946. Truman felt that higher wages would drive prices up. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 in response to allow for an 80 day cooling off period, forcing workers to work while the government studied the situation. The government established a higher minimum wage, greater unemployment compensation for the unemployed, housing assistance, a national health insurance program, and controlled atomic energy.
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Truman ran for reelection in 1948 with his running mate Alben Barkley. Governor Thomas E. Dewey of NY was his opponent from the Republican Party. Truman upset Dewey in the election after a major gaffe of the Chicago Daily Tribune headlined “Dewey Defeats Truman”. Truman ad libbed his campaign speeches on the road.
Truman’s second term featured the creation of NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization) comprising 12 nations – Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the US – as a military alliance where an attack on one would be considered an attack on all. This permanently ended US isolation in the world. China became communist in 1949 under Mao Zedong, who defeated Chiang Kai-shek (who fled to Taiwan). The USSR detonated an atomic bomb in 1949.
In a world growing ever more dangerous, Truman created the Security Council in 1947 to help him deal with the dangers creeping up in the world.
The biggest foreign policy crisis of Truman’s second term (1949-1953) was the Korean Conflict (1950-1953). The USSR had taken care of the Japanese north of the 38th parallel (38 degrees North) in WWII while the US fought the Japanese south of there. They created the governments of North Korea (communist) and South Korea (democratic) as a result. In June, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea to unite all of Korea into a single nation. They had believed that the USSR would back them up, but the USSR did not. The US asked the UN Security Council for help and was given help because the USSR was absent on the day of the vote. The US was led by General Douglas MacArthur, who landed in Inchon in western South Korea while North Korean forces were stationed at Pusan in eastern South Korea. The North Koreans were surrounded and pushed north to the border with China. China warned the US to stop pushing North Korea, but the US did not listen, resulting in China joining the conflict in October, 1950.
General MacArthur wanted to invade China, but Truman refused. MacArthur criticized Truman’s decision, so he was released from duty by Truman in March, 1951, for insubordination. A ceasefire was agreed to in 1953 at the 38th parallel by Dwight D. Eisenhower. A total of 54,000 Americans were killed in the conflict.
