Test 1 Material

note page 1 9/4/09 Measuring with Scientific Equipment

Electronic Balance: Used to measure the mass of an object. Remember, mass is the amount of matter (atoms) in an object.

How to use it: Turn it on. Make sure that it is in the grams mode.

If not, then press the unit button until you see a lower case “g” in the corner.

When measuring an object, first press the zero button, and wait until it reads 0.0 g.

Place the object on the pan and read the mass.

If you are measuring a powder, press zero and wait until it says zero. Then place the filter paper or tray on the pan, then press zero again. When the balance is zeroed out, then place the powder on the filter paper or in the tray.

If you are measuring a liquid, zero out the balance. Then place the container on the pan and press zero again. When the balance is zeroed out, you can place the liquid into the beaker.

Celsius Thermometer: Used to measure temperature. Our lab thermometers range from -20 degrees Celsius to 110 Celsius. Reminder: 0 Celsius is the freezing point of water and 100 Celsius is the boiling point of water. The numbers on the thermometer are in multiples of 10 and there are 10 graduation lines (measuring lines) that represent each degree Celsius in between. Remember to read at eye level. When submerged in liquid, do not touch the bulb of the thermometer to the glass of a beaker or flask. This will throw off your temperature reading.

Meter stick: Used to measure length. The meter stick has 100 long measuring lines or on it. These are the centimeters. There are 1000 short measuring lines that are very close together. These are the millimeter lines. There are 10 millimeter (mm) lines in 1 centimeter(cm).

Beaker: Used to measure volume. (Remember volume is the amount of space that an object takes up or occupies.) They come in various sizes from 50 milliLiters to 1000 mL. The amount of milliliters between each measuring line on the beaker depends on how big the beaker is. Some measuring lines are arranged in multiples of 10, 20, 50 or 100. The beaker is handy because it has a spout which is good when you need to pour liquids. Remember to read at eye level.

Flask: Used to measure volume particularly of liquids. They also come in various sizes. The Erlenmeyer flask is triangular shaped and has measuring lines. The Florence Flask has a long neck and a round bottom with no measuring lines. They have no spout for pouring and they can be used for storing, distilling, filtering and separating liquids.

Graduated cylinder: Used to measure volume mainly liquids. They are very helpful in getting more precise measurement. The measuring lines are called graduations. They also come in different sizes. The amount of milliliters between each measuring line on the graduated cylinder depends on how big it is. Remember to read at eye level. Also, when reading a graduated cylinder, you must take the reading at the meniscus which is the lowest part of the liquid level.

note p. 2 9/8/09

Science is….

• A systematic method of observing,

exploring and solving problems with

all that exists.

Branches of Science we will study:

Biology- study of living things

Ecology- study of the environment

Chemistry- study of matter and the interactions between matter

Physics- Study of matter and energy.

Pure Science-

is science that is done only for the advancement of knowledge or to gain information.

Technology –(AKA) applied science. It uses the pure science to invent or create new things to improve our lives.

All science is done by the Scientific Method.

The scientific method is an organized process used to solve problems.

What is a problem?

A situation in which the solutions are not obvious.

The Difference between a Problem and an Exercise

Problem

You don’t know the steps to get a solution.

You have to figure them out on your own.

Exercise

You know what steps to take to find a solution.

Also, the solutions are usually fairly obvious.

Problem Solving Strategies

• Define the problem. Understand what the problem is or isn’t. Make some observations.

• Use what you know about the problem to predict a solution.

• Look for patterns to make predictions

• Develop a model-and idea, system or structure that represents what you are trying to explain.

• Break the problem down into smaller parts.

Steps of the Scientific Method

• Define the problem/purpose/objective

• Form hypothesis (testable prediction)

• Test hypothesis

• Observe and record results

• Analyze- interpret your results

• Conclude if your hypothesis was supported or not.

Retest

After an Experiment you can form a theory.

Theory – an explanation based on many observations supported by many experimental results.

After a theory is tested for many years & it holds up, it then can become a scientific law.

Scientific Law – rule of nature; a theory that withstands many tests.

Note page 3 9/8/09

Experiment Terms to Know

• Variable – any factor in an experiment that can be tested.

• Constant – factor that doesn’t change in an experiment. (example: keeping the temperature constant or amount of water used constant).

Independent Variable – a factor that is adjusted by the experimenter. (You may choose to alter the dosage of an experimental medicine to see if it works at these different dosages. (when graphing this will always be on the x- axis.)

Dependent Variable - this depends on the value of the independent variable. (For example your independent variable may be 30 mg or a medicine to treat cancerous stomach tumors in lab rats. Your dependent variable would be how much that tumor shrinks in response to the medicine. )

Every experiment should have two groups

Experimental Group - the group that you test your hypothesis on. (For example, suppose you wanted to test how rock salt from snow plows affects the ability of plants and trees to grow along the side of the road. In a lab, you can grow 20 plants and put them into 2 groups of 10. Ten in the experimental group and the other 10 in the control group. The experimental group would receive a daily watering of 50 mL of water with 10 grams of rock salt mixed in it. As the plants grow measure their heights daily.

Control Group – a group you do not test. It shows a standard of comparison.

In this group these 10 plant will receive 50mL of plain water per day. Measure the plants’ heights daily and compare it to the experimental group. That way we could see if salt water stunts the growth of plants or not.

note page 4 9/9/09

SI Units

• Length- meter (instrument used is a meter stick or metric ruler)

• Mass – kilogram (instrument- triple beam balance or electronic balance) (mass is how much matter or how many atoms in an object)

• Time – second (instrument- watch, clock)

• Temperature – Kelvin (instrument - thermometer)

___________________________________________

Other types of common measurements and their instruments.

Volume- mL, milliliters or Liters . Also cm³ , cubic centimeters (graduated cylinders, flasks, beakers) (volume is how much space an object takes up)

Density- g/mL or g/cm³

Metric Prefixes to know

• k = kilo - 1000

• h= hecto - 100

• dk= deka – 10

• Base unit – 1

(meter, gram, liter, second)

* d= deci - 1/10

• c= centi - 1/100

• m=milli- 1/1000

Notes 9-15-09

Characteristics of Life Townsend

• 1. Cellular organization

• 2. Have similar chemicals & chemical reactions

• 3. Use energy

• 4. Grow & develop

• 5. Respond to stimuli

• 6. Reproduce

1. Cellular organization

• All living things (organisms) are made of cells.

Cellular organization

• A. Unicellular-one celled

• B. Multicellular- many celled

Examples

• A. Unicellular- bacteria

• B. Multicellular- any plant or animal

2. Similar Chemicals

• Carbohydrates-energy

• Proteins-building and repair

• Lipids-also used for building

• Nucleic acids-instructions to direct cell’s activity

chemical reactions

• Metabolism - The sum of all the chemical reactions in a cell.

3. Use Energy

• Every movement or chemical reaction uses energy

4. Growth & Development

• Growth is the process of becoming larger

• Development- the process of changing and becoming more complex

5. Respond to Stimuli

• Stimulus-something in the environment that causes an organism to react.

Examples of stimuli

• Sunlight, temperature,

6. Reproduction

• The ability to produce offspring similar to parents

Notes 9-16-09 "Cell Processes"

• All cells perform respiration,

diffusion, osmosis, reproduction

and metabolism

Metabolism

• There are many chemical

reactions that help maintain

normal cell function.

Cellular Respiration

• Process by which cell convert food to energy

• C₆H₁₂O6 + 6O2 = 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

Diffusion

When materials move from an

area of high concentration to an

area of low concentration.

Example of Diffusion

• If there is a lot of salt outside a cell and not much salt inside, which way will the salt move?

• A: It will move into the cell until there is a balance of salt inside and out. Equalibrium

Osmosis

• It’s a specific type of diffusion.

• It’s the diffusion of water.

Example if Osmosis

• If you go into the ocean, your

skin cells will let out water and

they will shrivel up causing dry

skin.

Passive Vs. Active transport

• Passive transport is when the cell does not use energy to move materials in and out of the cell.

• Ex. Diffusion and Osmosis

Active Transport

• The cell uses energy to move materials in and out of the cell.

Ex. Sodium – Potassium pumping

Notes 9-22-09

Cell theory- (developed by Schwann, Schleiden and Virchow)

n Cells are the basic unit of life.

n All living things are made of cells.

n All cell come from other living cells.

Cell Structure

n Cell wall- In plant, fungi and bacteria cells only.

n It supports and protects the cell.

n Made of cellulose (made of nonliving material called cellulose, a complex carbohydrate)

Cell Membrane

n It’s the thin layer around the cell.

n It keeps all of the organelles in.

n Controls movement of materials in or out of the cell though very small pores.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell.

Controls all cell processes.

Contains the nucleic acids called DNA and RNA.

Parts of the Nucleus are:

Nuclear membrane- it encloses the DNA in the nucleus & is similar to cell membrane in structure and function.

Chromatin- unwound chromosomes made of DNA. It is present when the cell is not reproducing.

n Chromosomes – tightly wound DNA. It’s the chromatin that’s all wound up. ( they are present during cell reproduction)

n Nucleolus – a dark sphere in the nucleus made of RNA and proteins.

n It’s used in making RNA.

Prokaryote Vs. Eukaryote:

An organism can be considered a Prokaryote or a Eukaryote depending on what type of nucleus it has.

n Prokaryotes – Do NOT have a “true nucleus” (DNA enclosed in a nuclear membrane) or membrane bound organelles. (ex. All bacteria)

n Eukaryotes- have a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. plants, animals, fungi, protists

Organelles

n Found in cytoplasm

n Endoplasmic Reticulum – (AKA ER) A maze of tubular pathways from the nuclear membrane. It transports proteins.(rough and smooth). It is rough when the ribosomes are on it. It is smooth when the ribosomes are not carried on it. (it’s empty)

Ribosome

n Protein factories located on

the rough ER or in the cytoplasm.

Mitochondria

Rod shaped structures that are the powerhouses of the cell. They produce all of the energy for the cell and the organism.

Vacuoles

n Storage places for food, water or waste products.

LYSOSOMES

n AKA “suicide sacks”- small round structures that contain digestive chemicals for food. When a cell is old or injured, all of the lysosomes burst and digest the entire cell!

Chloroplast

n In plant cells ONLY!

n oval, green structures that absorb sunlight and convert it into food for the plant. They contain the green pigment called chlorophyll. Site of Photosynthesis.

Centrioles

n Tube shaped structure that helps the cell pull chromosomes apart during cellular reproduction.

n In animal cells ONLY

Golgi bodies or Golgi Apparatus

n Irregularly shaped, Membranous structure that packages up proteins to ship them out of the cell.

Notes 9-28-09

Cell Reproduction

• There are two kinds of cell reproduction.

• Mitosis-cell reproduction in which the offspring cells identical in the # of chromosomes. (cell reproduction that produces body cell)

• Meiosis- cell reproduction in which offspring cells NOT identical. 1/ 2 # of chromosomes. (cell reproduction that produced ONLY gametes which are sex cells [egg & sperm] ).

Mitosis

• Prophase

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

• Goes back to Interphase

Mitosis

• Interphase – when the cell carries on its normal day to day metabolic activities like respiration, photosynthesis (if it is a plant cell)

• Prophase – the spaghetti-like Chromatin winds up tightly to form Chromosomes, the nucleolus disappears, organelles disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite poles (ends) of the cell & form a spindle apparatus.

What is a spindle apparatus?

• These are long fibers that grow out of the centrioles. They attach to the middle of a Chromosome to pull it apart.

Metaphase

• The spindle apparatus lines

the chromosomes up across

the middle or “equator” of the

cell.

Anaphase

• The chromosomes split in half. Each half is identical.

• Spindle pulls the halves toward the “north & south poles” of the cell.

Telephase

• Chromosomes unwind into chromatin.

• Cytoplasm divides which is called cytokinesis some of it goes into original cell and some into new cell.

• Spindles disappear.

Cell organelles reappear.

• Cell plate (plants) or a furrow (animals) forms

• Eventually a cell membrane forms and there are now two daughter cells each with 46 chromosomes.

• Genetically identical somatic cells (body cells)

• Cells go back to Interphase

Notes 9-30-09

Meiosis

• Parent cell for human has 46 chromosomes and the daughter cells end up with 23 chromosomes.

• How does this # cut in half?

Phases of Meiosis

• Actually chromosomes come on PAIRS!!!

• 2 Part Process

• I and Meiosis II

Meiosis I

• Prophase I – Chromatin winds down into chromosomes.

• Nucleolus disappears.

• Alike chromosome pairs group together

Metaphase I

• The like pairs of

chromosomes line up on the

equator of the cell.

Anaphase I

• Each chromosome of the like

pair separate and migrate to

opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase I

• Nuclear membrane begins to reform around chromosomes and cytoplasm is divided in half.

• Result- 2 cell with 23 chromosomes.

Prophase II

Spindle attaches to each of the 23 chromosomes

Metaphase II

Each of the 23 chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell.

Anaphase II

The spindle splits each of the 23 chromosomes in half and pulls the chromosome halves to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase II

Cytokinesis ( the division of cytoplasm) occurs in both cells. Furrow forms in both cells. Nuclear membrane reforms around the 23 chromosomes in each of the four cells.

End result is 4 new sex cells (gametes) with 23 chromosomes each.

New material for Genetics

10-6-09

Genetics

Heredity- passing physical characteristics from parent to offspring.

Gregor Mendel

Father of Genetics- study of heredity.

Mendel studied The genetics of pea plants.

He Cross pollinated2 purebred pea plants each with a different trait.

Seed color

He crossed a Purebred yellow seed plant crossed w/ purebred green seed plant.

Mendel called

the crossing of purebred plants the “P generation”.

parental generation.

The results of the cross are called the

F₁Offspring.

F stands for filial which means sons and daughters.

The F1’s in Mendel’s experiment,

All had Yellow seeds.

How did that happen???? We’ll answer that later.

He then crossed

Two F1 plants.

Keep in mind. All F1’s were yellow.

The results were called the

F₂ generation (second filial).

Results of the F₂’s were

3 / 4 of the F2’s were yellow & 1/ 4 of the F2 plants were green!

Why did the green Disappear in the F1 generation & come back in the F2?

Because of

Dominant & Recessive genes.

What’s a gene?

Gene-

a piece of DNA on a chromosome that controls a physical trait.

Think of

DNA as a book and a gene is one page of the book.

Allele

Is a different form of the same gene.

It’s like flavors.

Think of a gene

As ice cream. The ice cream comes in different flavors (alleles)

Example of Alleles:

Eye color is the gene. But blue, green, brown, hazel are alleles of that gene.

Some alleles

are dominant over others. Ex. Yellow pea sees are dominant to green.

Brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes.

In P generation,

One plant has all yellow alleles. The other plant has all green.

In the F1’s,

All have the yellow & green genes but yellow masks or hides (dominates) the green.

10-7-09

Lesson 2

Genetics is about probability- a number that tells how likely an event will occur.

Coin example in Section 2 book.

Every time you toss a coin there is a 1 in 2 (50%)chance you will land on heads. There is also a 1 in 2 chance you will land on tails.

How do we know it’s 1 in 2 chance?

There are 2 sides to a coin and it can only land on one side at a time.

In genetics there is the Law of Independent events.

This law says that just because your last coin toss was heads doesn’t mean the next toss will more likely be heads.

Real life example

Just because you have a baby boy, doesn’t mean your 2^nd child will more than likely be a boy.

Genotype-

Is the genetic make up of an organism. It’s a combination of alleles.

Phenotype-

Is an organism’s physical traits. The genotype controls the phenotype.

Homozygous- an organism is said to be homozygous

If it has 2 identical alleles for a trait.

Ex.) In pea plants homozygous for yellow pea seeds ( YY ). Or homozygous for green pea seeds ( yy ). They are the purebred for that trait.

Heterozygous- is when an organism has two different alleles for a trait.

Ex.) In pea plants, a the yellow pea seed color can also have this genotype but its phenotype is still yellow ( Yy ). It has one of each type of allele.

Purebred - the organism that will always produce the same kind of offspring as itself.

Hybrid- An organism that has 2 different alleles for one trait.

Punnett squares- a table thatshows all possible genotypes and phenotypes that result from a cross.

10-13-09

Lesson 3

Codominance- occurs when neither allele is dominant or recessive.

What happens

Instead one allele dominating or hiding the other allele, it is more like a blending effect.

Example: Some flowers like snapdragons

If you cross a purebred red with a purebred white, instead of getting

An entire F1 generation of red like you would with complete dominance, the F1’s are all pink which both alleles are codominant because both alleles are expressed.

The red and white alleles blended because neither was dominant over the other.

10-15-09

Lesson 4

Sex chromosomes- carry genes that determine if you are male or female

They are the only 2 chromosomes

that don’t always match.

If you are a gir,

you have 2 matching sex chromosomes called “X” chromosomes.

The reason ?

They are called “X” chromosomes is because they look like an “X.”

If you are a boy,

you don’t have matching sex chromosomes.

Instead,

You have an “X” and “Y” chromosome.

One of them looks like an “X” & the other looks like a small oval.

To see pictures

Go to p. 147

Males determine

The sex of a baby in most animals.

If you have a baby girl,

They get one “X” chromosome from mom & one “X” chromosome from dad.

IF you have a baby boy,

They still only get 1 “X” chromosome from mom & 1 “Y” chromosome from dad.

There are genetic disorders

that are sometimes located on the sex chromsosomes.

Most genetic disorders

are recessive.

Most of them are on X chromosome

That is why

more men are color blind. (it’s an X- linked recessive genetic disorder. )

Lesson 5

Genetic disorders are abnormal conditions that a person inherits

Genetic disorders are

Caused by mutations. (a change in the DNA in certain genes)

Caused by a problem with the # of chromosomes.

Cystic Fibrosis

Lung disease, thick mucus fills the lungs. Caused by recessive mutation on a chromosome.

Sickle cell disease

Red blood cells are malformed & cannot carry O₂ well. Recessive mutation.

Hemophilia

Can’t form blood clots. Can bleed to death. X-linked recessive disorder.

Down Syndrome

If a person has Down’s syndrome, every cell in a his/her body has an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Pedigree

A chart or family tree that tracks which family members of a family have a certain trait.

P. 153-154

Shows pedigree charts.

Karyotype

A picture/photo of all the chromosomes in a person’s body.

Test 4 Notes

10-27-09

, Plant, Fungi, Protist, Eubacteria & Archaebacteria

Second Quarter Test 1

Viruses??????

Are not in any kingdom. Currently, viruses are considered to be nonliving.

Outside a cell,

they show no characteristics of living things.

Inside a cell,

they seem to behave or have some characteristics of a living organism.

Definition of a Virus-

Tiny, nonliving particle that enters & reproduces in a living cell.

6 Kingdoms of living things

nAnimal
characteristics of a virus

nCan invade ANY kind of cell

nThe only thing they do is multiply.

nDifferent shapes & sizes but all are much smaller than cells.

Viral structure

nOutside- Protein coat or shell

nInside- DNA or RNA (nucleic acid)

The Nucleic acids

nHave genetic info on how to produce more viruses.

Viral multiplication

n Active virus-

n 1. Virus attaches to cell.

n 2. Injects it’s DNA or RNA into the cell

n 3. Viral DNA takes over the cell.

n 4. New viruses are assembled in the cell.

5. The cell bursts & all the new viruses are released & go to attack other cells.

Latent “Hidden” virus

n1. Virus attaches to cell & injects DNA or RNA.

n2. The DNA becomes part of the cells’ DNA for months or years.

n3. During that time, the cell goes through mitosis & viral DNA divides with the cell.

n4. Virus becomes active again & removes itself from the cell’s DNA

n5. Cell makes and assembles new viruses.

n6. Cell bursts and viruses attack nearby cells.

Viral Diseases

nChicken pox

nSmall pox

nCow pox

nHerpes

nPolio

nInfluenza (flu)

nHepatitis

nCommon cold

nMononucleosis (mono)

nAIDS (HIV)

Hand foot and mouth disease

Measles and German measles

Mumps

Rabies

Rotovirus

11-01-09

Lesson 2 Bacteria

nProkaryotic- no membrane bound nucleus or organelles.

nAutotrophic- some can makes their own food

nHeterotrophic – some can’t make own food. Some are pathogenic-cause diseases

Why are bacteria in 2 different kingdoms?

nTheir genetic make up is very different from each other.

Archaebacteria

nFound in the deep ocean vents near underwater volcanoes.

q Prokaryotic

nBillions of years old.

nThought to be one of the earliest life forms

Eubacteria

nProkaryotic

nHeterotrophic & autotrophic

nKnown as the Everyday bacteria

nBefore we discovered archaebacteria, we used to refer to Eubacteria as monerans.

Bacterial cell

nNo nucleus

nThick cell wall

nCell membrane

nCytoplasm

nRibosomes

nNo membrane bound organelles

nNucleic acids- it is a circle of DNA (one chromosome).

You may see flagella- long, whip like tails.

nYou may also see Cilia- tiny(short) hair like projections.

nCilia & flagella help with locomotion.

Shape of Bacteria

nSpherical- cocci

nRod like- (oval to cylinder shaped) bacillus

nSpiral- sprilla

nSome bacteria, cyanobacteria make their own food by photosynthesis.

nSome bacteria use chemicals in the environment to make their own food.

nHeterotrophic bacteria eat any food item, or decaying organism.

nSome bacteria need oxygen to survive & others die in the presence of oxygen.

nReproduction can be Asexual- binary fission. (sort of like mitosis)

Sexual reproduction – there are no males or females, but 2 bacteria will get together to exchange(swap) pieces of DNA.

Bacterial diseases

n1.Food poisoning- (botulism, salmonella, E.coli)

n2. tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis

n3. Bubonic Plague

n4. Lyme disease

n5. Strep throat

n6. Staph infection(MRSA)

We get rid of a Bacterial infection by….

nUsing antibiotics,

nex. Penicillin, amoxicillin, erythromycin, azithromycin, bioxin, can you name

nAntibiotics DO NOT work on viruses!! They work by breaking down and destroying the bacterial cell walls.

11-03-09

Lesson 3 Protists

nEukaryotes not classified as animals, plants or fungi. Odds & ends

.

3 Main categories

nAnimal like

nPlant like

nFungus like

Animal like Protist

nAre also known as Protozoans

Animal like protists

nHeterotrophs so they must be mobile (able to move) to find food.

Animal like protists

nAre grouped into 4 categories.

Protozoans W/ Pseudopod

nHave no definite shape.

nHave temporary bulges.(pseudopods)

nPseudopods stretch out to move, search for food & capture food by engulfing it.

Example

nAmoeba- they are like the blob. Shape keeps changing.

Protozoans with cilia

They have cilia around their entire body to help them move & get food.

nThey sweep the food into their oral groove (mouth).

n Ex. Paramecium

Protozoans w/ flagella

nThey have long whip like tails for movement.

Example: flagellates

nTrichonympha- Lives in termite intestines. Digests wood.

Parasitic Protozoans

nCause disease: Plasmodium- causes malaria

Plantlike Protists

nSome are classified by pigment colors

Diatoms

nShiny and glasslike

nunicellular

Dinoflagellates

ntwirling 2 flagella through water & spin like a top.

nunicellular

nGlow in the dark.

Euglenoids

nunicellular

nOne tail

nPhotosynthesis

nEyespot (light sensitive)

Red algae

nRed pigment

nMulticellular seaweeds.

Green Algae

nGreen pigments

nMostly unicellular

nSome multicellular

Lives in water

Brown algae

nCan have yellow, orange & green pigments makes brown.

nSeaweeds(multicell)

Fungus like Protists

nHeterotrophic

nHave cell walls

nmulticellular

examples

nSlime molds

nSome water molds

nDowny mildews.

11-04-09

Lesson 4 Fungi

nMulticellular. Yeasts are unicellular.

nHeterotrophic

nCell walls

Most eat decaying organisms

nReproduce by spores

All multicellular fungi

nHave their cells arranged in hyphae-

Branching, threadlike tube shaped structures

nFungi grow on rotting food or dead things. The hyphae grow into the food.

Digestive chemicals

ncome out of the hyphae, break down the food & nutrients are absorbed through hyphae

Asexual reproduction

nFruiting bodies produce & release millions of spores.

Sexual Reproduction

nHyphae of 2 fungi grow together & genetic info is exchanged.

Fungi

nFood

nDecomposers

nDisease fighting

nDisease causing

Club fungi

nIncludes, mushrooms, bracket fungi, rusts, puffballs,

Sac fungi

nYeasts, morels (look like a brain) truffles (expensive food item)

Zygote (threadlike) fungi

nFruit and bread molds, molds that attack insects. 600 species of mold.

Imperfect Fungi

nDo not reproduce sexually.

nPenicillin, ringworm

Lichens

A fungus with photosynthetic bacteria or algae in them.

PLANTS

nEukatyotes

nAll Multicellular

nAll Autotrophic

nAll contain Chlorophyll- green pigment that absorbs sunlight

Plants

n2 types

nSeedless

nseed

Sub Types

n1. Vascular- has tissue that transports food and water

n2. Nonvascular-

Does not have transport tissue for food & water

Nonvascular Seedless Plants

nLow growing

nLack vascular tissue

Examples Nonvascular Seedless Plants

nMosses

nLiverworts

nHornworts

Parts of a moss

nRhizoids –rootlike structures

nStemlike structure

nLeafllike structure

Moss life cycle

n1. Sporophyte- part of the moss’s life cycle in which it reproduces by spores

n2. Spores grow into a gametophyte

Gametophyte- part of a moss’s life cycle in which it reproduces by gametes.

n 3. The gametophyte makes gametes (sperm and egg).

The sporophyte and gametophyte stages look quite different.

n Fertilization- union of sperm & egg.

5. Fertilization produces

A new sporophyte which contains spores.

6. Cycles starts over

We call that cycle…

nAlternation of Generation

Vascular Seedless Plants- these plants can grow quite tall because they contain tissues in their stems and leaves to transport food and water

nExample: Ferns, horse tails, club mosses (they are not a real moss. It’s just a name)

nTaller growing

n12,000 species of ferns

These plants also have alternation of generation

nSporophyte- spore cases on underside of the fern frond contain thousands of spores. Spore lands and grows into a gametophyte which produces egg & sperm, which then unite to form a new sporophyte generation again.

Seed Plants and Vascular Plant Anatomy

nVascular tissue

nUse Seeds for reproduction

Vascular Tissue

n1. Phloem- vascular tissue that moves FOOD.

n2. Xylem- vascular tissue that transports WATER.

Roots

nFunction is to 1. anchor the plant to the ground,

n2. Absorb nutrients and water from the soil.

Root Structure

nRoot cap- bottom tip that contains dead cell and protects the root from injury

nRoot hairs- help anchor the plant and absorb water and nutrients

nArea of dividing cells going through mitosis.

nVascular tissue (xylem and phloem inside)

Stem functions

n1. Carries water and nutrients from roots to leaves.

n2. Holds the leaves up so they are exposed to sunlight.

Stems can be:

nHerbacious- soft & bendable

nWood like- hard and rigid

Both types of stem have: Xylem and Phloem in them.

nWoody stems have Bark and a Cambrium layer- which divides Xylem & phoem.

Leaf Structure (from outside in)

nCuticle- waxy layer does not contain cells

nSurface cells (called epidermis cells) – Upper and lower epidermis.

n Contain stomata –tiny pores that open and close to let in CO2 and let out O2 and excess H20. The stomata are located between 2 guard cells which control the opening

nPalisade Layer – upper leaf cell that contain many chloroplasts for photosynthesis

_nSpongy layer- mid to lower leaf cells that have many spaces used for storing O₂and CO_2.

The spongy layer contains…

nVein- contains Xylem and Phloem tissue and is used to transport food and nutrients.

Seed Plants

Subcategories of seed plants: Monocot VS. Dicot

• Monocot –

• 1. Has one cotyledon or one seed leaf on the embryo. A Cotyledon is a plant embryo.

• 2. Vascular tissue is arranged in bundles that are scattered randomly throughout the stem.

• Veins in the leaves are parallel. (They never cross over each other as they run from stem to tip of the leaf.)

• Flower parts such as petals and stamens are usually arranged in threes or multiples of 3. .

Dicot

• Two cotyledons (two seed leaves on the embryo)

• Vascular tissues arranged in bundles that are in rings around the outside of the stem/trunk.

• Veins are in a netlike pattern. They cross over each other or branch out from each other.

• Flower parts are arranged in fours or fives or multiples of 4’s or 5’s.

Plant Reproduction

• Seeds are structures that contain:

• Young plant (plant embryo with a cotyledon with stored glucose in the

leaf (s) so the young plant has energy to break out of the seed & grow.

• . Hard covering

Seeds develop by Fertilization of Pollen(male) and Ova(female)

• After Fertilization, there is a plant embryo that is covered by a seed coat

Seed Dispersal

• 1. Wind

• 2. Water

• 3. Attach to animal fur

• 4. Animal digestive tract

After seed lands in soil

• The seed will Germinate or sprout.

Gymnosperms

• 1. Produce Naked seeds

(do not have a protective covering)

2. Have needle like leaves

• 3. Have deep growing roots

Types of Gymnosperms

• 1. Cycads- tropical plant

• 2. Ginkgo- Eastern Asian tree

• 3. Gnetophytes- shrubs and vines that occur in deserts and rain forests

• 4. Conifers-cone bearers

Conifers

• Pines,

• Spruces, Firs

• Hemlock, Junipers

• Redwood, Cedars

Reproduction

Gymnosperms

1. Produce Naked seeds

(do not have a protective covering)

2. Have needle like leaves

• 3. Have deep growing roots

• Types of Gymnosperms

• 1. Cycads- tropical plant

• 2. Ginkgo- Eastern Asian tree

• Gnetophytes- shrubs and vines that occur in deserts and rain forests

• 4. Conifers-cone bearers

• Conifers

• Pines,

• Spruces, Firs

• Hemlock, Junipers

• Redwood, Cedars

Cones

• Male cones

• Female Cones

• One plant has both

Pollination leads to fertilization

• Male cones contain Pollen (sperm)

• Female cones contain eggs call Ova

Angiosperms

• Flowers and Fruits

• Ex.) maple, corn, grass, apple tree

Angiosperms

• All monocots and dicots are angiosperms.

Flower Power- Angiosperms

Petals – colorful structures seen when the flower opens

• Sepals- leaf- like structures that enclose a flower bud before it opens

Inside the flower….

• Male parts: Stamen

• Female parts: Pistil

(and is in the center of the flower)

Stamens

• Filament -Long stalk that supports the anther

• Anther – a structure that makes pollen

Pistils

• Stigma – sticky tip that traps pollen

• Style- tube that connects stigma to ovary

• Ovary hollow structure that contains ova (eggs)

• Monocots and Dicots are ONLY ANGIOSPERMS

2nd Quarter

Test 2 Notes ( Human Body System)

The Skeletal System (The Bones)

Functions:

shapes your body
supports your body
helps you to move
protects internal organs
produces blood cells
stores minerals (phosphorus and calcium) until your body needs them

joint- a place where 2 bones come together usually held together by a ligament (strong connective tissue) or cartilage ( a rigid tissue more flexible than bone).

**ligaments connect bone to bone.

Parts of the bone

Compact bone- hard, dense with small blood vessels and nerves running through it.

Spongy bone- a layer beneath the compact bone with many spaces and it is found near the ends of a bone.

Marrow- very soft connective tissue found in the spaces of spongy bone.

Red bone marrow – produces blood cell

Yellow bone marrow- stores fat

Bone diseases/disorders

Fracture- broken bone

Arthritis- inflammation of the joints

Osteoporosis- when bones become weak due to a loss of calcium

Muscular System

Function: movement and body process (homeostasis)

2 Main Categories of muscles

Voluntary- They are under your control. You can move them at will.

Involuntary- They are not under your control.

3 types of muscle tissue

Skeletal muscles-

These are voluntary muscles attached to a bone in your body.

They are attached by a connective tissue called a tendon.

They are also striated which means banded together.

These muscles can react quickly but tire easily.

** Tendons connect muscle to bone.

Smooth muscles-

These are involuntary muscles that inside internal organs and control many of the body’s process such as breathing, and digestion.

These muscles are not striated.

They react slowly but never get tired.

Cardiac muscles-

These are involuntary striated muscles found only in the heart.

They never get tired.

The Circulatory System (AKA Cardiovascular System)

Consists of: heart, blood vessels and blood

Function: transports materials around the body

Heart: Pumps blood by contracting and squeezing the blood out of it into arteries.

Humans have a 4 chambered heart.

Right and Left atrium (top part) and Right and Left ventricle (bottom part).

Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart to various body parts.

Veins: Return blood to the heart.

Capillaries: Very tiny blood vessels that exchange nutrients that cells need for the waste the cells get rid of.

Blood:

Contains red blood cells which carry oxygen to cells and carry away carbon dioxide waste.

Also contains white blood cells which attack pathogens and also contain cells called antibodies.

Circulation of blood:

Blood in the right ventricle goes to the lungs to become oxygenated.
This blood flows to the left atrium.
It gets pumped directly to the left ventricle and leaves the heart and goes into arteries to bring oxygen to parts of the body.
After the cells of the body parts take the oxygen out of the blood, it becomes deoxygenated.
This blood enters veins which carry the deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium.

Lymphatic System (immune system)

Consists of white blood cells,

lymph nodes- garbage collection points throughout the body

,lymph vessels, lymph fluid,

Spleen- organ that is the main garbage collecting point and it also recycles parts of dead cells.

Blood components:

Plasma: liquid part of blood (mostly water)

Red blood cells: carry oxygen to body cells

White blood cells: kill pathogens & (trash collectors)

Platelets: cell fragment that stick to any site where a blood vessel is cut. They help blood to clot.

4 Major Blood Types based on the protein markers on the outside of the blood cells.

Type A

Type B

Type AB

Type O (type O doesn’t have any protein markers on it)

Rh factor

A second protein marker on red blood cells. People either have it or they don’t.

If you have it, you are Rh + and if you do not you are Rh -.

This is combined with the ABO blood types.

A+ A-

B+ B-

AB+ AB-

O+ O-

Type O- is nick named the Universal Donor because they can donate their blood to anyone without the recipient having an adverse immune reaction reaction.

Do you know your blood type?

Integumentary System (skin)

Function: outermost barrier of the body that protects it from

1. injury,

2. infection from pathogens

3. water loss

4. maintain internal body temperature

5. gathering information about the environment

6. produces vitamin D

Structure:

Epidermis- thin outermost layer of the skin that contains no blood vessels or nerves.

This layer sheds and replaces itself every 2 weeks.

It also protects against backeria and sun damage.

Dermis- inner layer of skin below the epidermis that contains nerves, blood vessels, sweat glands oil glands and hair follicles .

There are many diseases and disorders that can affect skin.

Acne- pimples

Dermitis- inflammation

Eczema- severely dry skin patches

Digestive system

Function:

1. Breaks down food into small molecules (nutrients).

2. Absorbs nutrient molecules into the blood stream to be carried throughout the body.

3. Eliminates solid wastes from the body.

*Digestion – When your body mechanically (physically) and chemically breaks down food.

*Absorption- The process of the nutrients passing through the walls of the digestive organs into the blood stream.

Parts of digestive system:

Mouth- mechanically breaks down food particles. Saliva breaks down carbs into simple sugars. (chemical digestion)

Esophagus- tube that connects mouth to stomach. It pushes food down into the stomach.

Stomach- moves to mechanically break down food and stomach acids and enzymes break down proteins into amino acids.

Small intestine- more chemical digestion takes place and nutrient molecules are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine into the blood vessels. 1 – 1 ½ inches in diameter and about 20 feet long.

Liver- releases digestive enzymes to break down fats, meds or toxins into harmless substances.

Gallbladder- stores bile for the liver. Bile is the enzyme that breaks down fat. The liver and gallbladder have a tube that leads into the small intestine and that is how they dump their enzymes into the small intestine.

Pancreas- produces digestive enzyme insulin that goes into the small intesting. It helps the body break down some starches, some proteins and some fats.

Large intestine- absorbs excess water from the clumps of waste matter and compacts the waste matter about 5-6 feet long and 2-3 inches in diameter. Fecal material enters the rectum and leaves the body through the anus.

There are many digestive disorders. The most common are diarrhea, constipation, ulcers (painful sores that wear away the stomach lining) and lactose intolerance (inability to digest the sugar lactose. When lactose is taken in, the person will get gas bloating and diarrhea.

Respiratory System

Function:

To bring oxygen into the body and bloodstream. (inhale)
To get rid of Carbon dioxide and expel it from the body.(exhale)

Organs it consists of:

Nose- air enters and nose hair remove dust.

Pharynx- located in the throat area: airway that connects nasal passage to trachea

Larynx- voice box. Air passes over the vocal chords causing them to vibrate and it produces a sound.

Trachea- main wind pipe or airway that leads to the lungs.

Bronchi (plural)- 2 airways that branch off the trachea and carry air into each lung.

Lung- the organ where gas exchange takes place. In the lung are small tubes that look like a bunch of grapes called alveoli. Alveoli have a lot of blood vessel around them that exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide.

Respiratory disorders:

Respiratory infections such as sinus infection & pneumonia

Asthma- constricting of the airways (bronchi and bronchioles)

Bronchitis- inflammation of the bronchi

Emphysema- the alveoli are destroyed by smoking and gas exchange is difficult.

And many others

Excretory system

Functions:

Collects and eliminates excess waste products produced by cells during their everyday metabolism.
Filters the blood.
Regulates hydration levels.

Consists of:

Kidney- complex filter that removes nitrogenous wastes from the body in the form of urine. (urea, water and other wastes)

Urine flows from each or the two kidneys to two ureters

Ureters- tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder.

Bladder- sacklike organ that stores urine. When the bladder is full, bladder muscles contract and a person urinates.

Urethra- small tube through which urine exits the body.

Nervous System

Functions: helps maintain homeostasis by sending and receiving signals about what is happening both inside and outside the body. (stimulus – response)

Consists of: brain, spinal cord and nerves (AKA the peripheral nervous system)

Neurons- nerve cells

Brain is the “central nervous system.” It controls everything the body does and it is the main organ that maintains/governs homeostasis.

Spinal cord- it carries signals that come from peripheral nerves to and from the brain.

Neurons- can sense and transmit info about the external environment.

The carry signals to/from our internal organs.

Help the body to react to external and internal stimuli. (reflexes)

Nervous disorders:

Concussion/ Brain damage- once brain cells are dead, they never grow back or replace the dead ones.

Spinal cord injuries – paralysis due to crushing or cutting of the of the spinal cord.

Blindness, depression,

D & A abuse,

rabies,

Huntington’s Chorea – genetic disease that kills neurons

Multiple Sclerosis- inflammation of the central nervous system

Endocrine System

Function: Uses chemicals called hormones to communicate/ send messages to parts of the body to regulate the body’s daily activities.

These hormones are secreted directly into the blood stream to maintain homeostasis.

Consists of various glands that work together with the nervous system

Hypothalamus: (tiny gland located in the middle of head, behind eyes) It connects the nervous system to the endocrine system. It is actually a part of the brain that sends hormones to the pituitary gland in the endocrine system.

Pituitary gland: AKA the master gland. A small round shaped gland that controls all other glands in the endocrine system. (It is located in the middle of the head beneath the hypothalamus)

Thyroid gland: regulates the body’s metabolism, body temperature and how fast food is burned for energy. (It is a butterfly shaped gland located in the front of the neck/throat)

Parathyroid gland: tiny round glands on the thyroid gland that are responsible for how much calcium is in the blood.

Thymus gland- helps the body’s immune system build antibodies (immunities) to diseases mainly during childhood. It is located in the middle of the chest.

Pancreas- long shaped gland beneath the stomach that controls the levels of glucose in the blood. It can also help digestion.

Adrenal glands- (medium irregular shaped glands located on top of each kidney). These are responsible for releasing adrenaline in emergency situations, and help with salt and water balance in the blood.

Ovaries- (small oval organs located in the lower abdomen of females). They release female hormones (estrogen, progesterone, FSH, and also contain egg cells.

Testes- (oval shaped organs located on the lower external part of the torso of males). Testes produce the male hormone, testosterone, and produce sperm cells.

The Endocrine works in a Negative feedback system. This means if a the body is running low on a certain hormone, the brain sends a signal to the endocrine gland to produce more of the hormone (to make sure there is enough). Once there is enough of this hormone, the brain sends a signal to the gland to produce less of it (to make sure there isn’t too much hormone).

Mrs. Townsend

Science 8 Notes

Science is….

• A systematic method of observing,

exploring and solving problems with

all that exists.

Branches of Science we will study:

Biology- study of living things

Ecology- study of the environment

Chemistry- study of matter and the interactions between matter

Physics- Study of matter and energy.

Pure Science-

is science that is done only for the advancement of knowledge or to gain information.

Technology –(AKA) applied science. It uses the pure science to invent or create new things to improve our lives.

All science is done by the Scientific Method.

The scientific method is an organized process used to solve problems.

What is a problem?

A situation in which the solutions are not obvious.

The Difference between a Problem and an Exercise

Problem

You don’t know the steps to get a solution.

You have to figure them out on your own.

Exercise

You know what steps to take to find a solution.

Also, the solutions are usually fairly obvious.

Problem Solving Strategies

• Define the problem. Understand what the problem is or isn’t. Make some observations.

• Use what you know about the problem to predict a solution.

• Look for patterns to make predictions

• Develop a model-and idea, system or structure that represents what you are trying to explain.

• Break the problem down into smaller parts.

Steps of the Scientific Method

• Define the problem/purpose/objective

• Form hypothesis (testable prediction)

• Test hypothesis

• Observe and record results

• Analyze- interpret your results

• Conclude if your hypothesis was supported or not.

After an Experiment you can form a theory.

Theory – an explanation based on many observations supported by many experimental results.

Scientific Law – rule of nature; a theory that withstands many tests.

Experiment Terms to Know

• Variable – any factor in an experiment that can be tested.

• Constant – factor that doesn’t change in an experiment. (example: keeping the temperature constant or amount of water used constant).

Independent Variable – a factor that is adjusted by the experimenter. (You may choose to alter the dosage of an experimental medicine to see if it works at these different dosages. (when graphing this will always be on the x- axis.)

Dependent Variable - this depends on the value of the independent variable. (For example your independent variable may be 30 mg or a medicine to treat cancerous stomach tumors in lab rats. Your dependent variable would be how much that tumor shrinks in response to the medicine. )

Control Group – a group you do not test. It shows a standard of comparison.

SI Units

• Length- meter (instrument used is a meter stick or metric ruler)

• Mass – kilogram (instrument- triple beam balance or electronic balance) (mass is how much matter or how many atoms in an object)

• Time – second (instrument- watch, clock)

• Temperature – Kelvin (instrument - thermometer)

Metric Prefixes to know

• k = kilo - 1000

• h= hecto - 100

• dk= deka – 10

• Base unit – 1

(meter, gram, liter, second)

* d= deci - 1/10

• c= centi - 1/100

• m=milli- 1/1000

Characteristics of Life Townsend

• 1. Cellular organization

• 2. Have similar chemicals & chemical reactions

• 3. Use energy

• 4. Grow & develop

• 5. Respond to stimuli

• 6. Reproduce

1. Cellular organization

• All living things (organisms) are made of cells.

Cellular organization

• A. Unicellular-one celled

• B. Multicellular- many celled

Examples

• A. Unicellular- bacteria

• B. Multicellular- any plant or animal

2. Similar Chemicals

• Carbohydrates-energy

• Proteins-building and repair

• Lipids-also used for building

• C₆H₁₂O6 + 6O2 = 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy