Personification
A figure of speech in which something nonhuman is given human
characteristics. Consider the following lines from Carl
Sandburg's "Chicago:"
Stormy, husky, brawling,
City of the big shoulders:
Carl Sandburg description of Chicago includes shoulders. Cities do not have
shoulders, people do. Sandburg personifies the city by ascribing to it
something human, shoulders. "Justice is blind." is another example.
Pathetic Fallacy
A fallacy of reason in suggesting that nonhuman phenomena act from human
feelings, as suggested by the word "pathetic" from the Greek pathos
Onomatopoeia
A literary device wherein the sound of a word echoes the sound it
represents.
The words "splash." "knock," and "roar" are examples. The following lines
end
Dylan Thomas' "Fern Hill:"
Out of the whinnying green stable
On to the fields of praise.
The word "whinnying" is onomatopoetic. "Whinny" is the sound usually
selected
to represent that made by a horse.
Oxymoron
A combination of contradictory terms, such as used by Romeo in Act 1, scene
1
of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet:"
Why then, O brawling love! O loving hate!
O heavy lightness, serious vanity;
Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms!
Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!
Theme
An ingredient of a literary work which gives the work unity. The theme
provides an answer to the question What is the work about?There are too many
possible themes to recite them all in this document. Each literary work
carries its own theme(s).
Alliteration
Used for poetic effect, a repitition of the initial sounds of several words
in a group. The following line from Robert Frost's poem "Acquainted with the
Night provides us with an example of alliteration,": I have stood still and
stopped the sound of feet." The repitition of the s sound creates a sense of
quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the line
Allusion
A reference in one literary work to a character or theme found in another
literary work. T. S. Eliot, in "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" alludes
(refers) to the biblical figure John the Baptist in the line Though I have
seen my head (grown slightly bald) brought in upon a platter, . . . In the
New Testament, John the Baptist's head was presented to King Herod on a
platter.
Characterization
The method a writer uses to reveal the personality of a character in a
literary work: Methods may include (1) by what the character says about
himself or herself; (2) by what others reveal about the character; and (3)
by
the character's own actions
Euphemism
A mild word of phrase which substitutes for another which would be
undesirable because it is too direct, unpleasant, or offensive.
Hyperbole
A figure of speech in which an overstatement or exaggeration occurs as in
the
following lines from Act 2, scene 2 of Shakespeare's "Macbeth." In this
scene, Macbeth has murdered King Duncan. Horrified at the blood on his
hands,
he asks:
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather
The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
Making the green one red.
Literally, it does not require an ocean to wash blood from one's hand. Nor
can the blood on one's hand turn the green ocean red. The hyperbole works to
illustrate the guilt Macbeth feels at the brutal murder of his king and
kinsman.
Metaphor
A figure of speech wherein a comparison is made between two unlike
quantities
without the use of the words "like" or "as." Jonathan Edwards, in his
sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," has this to say about the
moral condition of his parishoners:
There are the black clouds of God's wrath now hanging directly over your
heads, full of the dreadful storm and big with thunder;
The comparison here is between God's anger and a storm. Note that there is
no
use of "like" or "as" as would be the case in a simile
Simile
A figure of speech which takes the form of a comparison between two unlike
quantities for which a basis for comparison can be found, and which uses the
words "like" or "as" in the comparison, as in this line from Ezra
Pound's "Fan-Piece, for Her Imperial Lord:"clear as frost on the grass-
bade,In this line, a fan of white silk is being compared to frost on a blade
of grass. Not the use of the word "as."
Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony is a relationship of contrast between a character's limited
understanding of his or her situation in some particular moment of the
unfolding action and what the audience, at the same instant, understands the
character's situation actually to be.
Motif
In literature, term that denotes the recurrent presence of certain character
types, objects, settings, or situations in diverse genres and periods of
folklore and literature.
direct address-
Fred, come over to the counter.
I have asked you, Fred, to please go to the counter.
I say to you, shipmate.
Semicolons connect two independent clauses!
This is an independent clause; this is also an independent clause.
Pathos
A characteristic in literature that causes the reader to feel pity or grief
Paradox-
A situation or statement that seems to contradict itself but really doesn�t.
Examples:
I know I know nothing.
fighting for peace
Do not read this sentence.
standing is more tiring than walking
The silence rang in my ears.
The more you increase your knowledge; you see how little you know.
�You can have it (Model T) in any color you want, as long as it�s black.�
Henry Ford
�A single death is a tragedy, a million is a statistic.� Joseph Stalin
lessen your speed
Parenthetical Expression (by the way) phrases , by the way,
Appositives are nouns or groups of nouns that follow another noun, further
describing the preceding noun.
Mrs. Carr, our teacher, is crazy. (teacher is the appositive)
You put commas around an appositive if it can come out. N0 commas if the
information inside is necessary to the meaning of the sentence.
Our teacher Mrs. Carr is crazy. It is not in commas because you could have
many different teachers.
If, on the contrary, you decide to not study, you�ll surely fail.
Visionaries, who were outside having a blast, missed a good discussion.
My mom, Molly, is at home right now. APPOSITIVE
My mom, who is nice, is at home right now. PARENTHETICAL
Page 49- It was in one of the many small streets for which the favorite
undertaker (who turned a handsome sum out of one poor ghastly pomp of the
neighborhood) kept a black ladder�
Tone- author�s attitude toward the subject
Mood- the way the author is trying to get YOU, the reader, to feel.
Imagery- word or words that appeal to SENSES (sight, smell, touch, taste,
sound)
Three Main Rhetorical Styles
Rhetoric (n) - the art of speaking or writing effectively.
Ethos
Ethos is appeal based on the character of the speaker. An ethos-driven
document relies on the reputation of the author.
Go to an example of an ethos-based site, and our explanation of what it is.
(ON MY LINKS PAGE)
Logos
Logos is appeal or argument based on logic or reason.
Go to an example of an logos-based site, and our explanation. (ON MY LINKS
PAGE)
Pathos
Pathos is appeal based on emotion, meant to encourage pity.. Advertisements
tend to be pathos-driven.
Go to an example of an pathos-based site, and our explanation. (ON MY LINKS
PAGE)
Episodic novel- collection of logs, diaries, newspaper articles, etc.
gerund-
a verb, ending with ING, that functions as a noun
� Running is fun.
� Eating ice cream is even more
fun than running.
reflexive pronoun-
a �self� pronoun referring to the individual(s) named by the subject. You
must be able to �double-back� to the person performing the action.
� They denied themselves
nothing.
� I am not myself today.
WRONG: Mom baked cookies for
Cindy and myself.
ellipses
�.. indicates that words have been left out
�.indicates that something unwritten came earlier
�..indicates a sentence trailing off
�..indicates a long, slow break
�..indicates a slow-down in
thought or conversation
emphasis
I couldn�t believe my eyes: it was Jeff!
I couldn�t believe my eyes- it was Jeff!
I couldn�t believe my eyes. It was Jeff!
I couldn�t believe my eyes�Jeff!
I couldn�t believe my eyes- JEFF!
I couldn�t believe my eyes- JEFF!
quote within a quote
Parker said, �My mom said, �No way!� so I guess we can�t go.�
*If yes or no is quoted, you don�t have to use marks {Mom said yes.}
alliteration
The repetition of the same or similar sounds at the beginning of
words: �What
would the world be, once bereft/Of wet and wildness?� One of the aspects to
be aware of in the use of alliteration is the different psychological effect
of various repeated sounds. A repeated "m" sound gives a feeling of hush,
containment, murmuring. A repeated "k" sound is harsh, abrasive,
threatening,
or angry. A repeated "l" sound is lilting. Repeated "p" sounds very quickly
become comical.
apostrophe
Words that are spoken to a person who is absent or imaginary, or to an
object
or abstract idea. The poem God's World by Edna St. Vincent Millay begins
with
an apostrophe:
�O World, I cannot hold thee close enough!
Thy winds, thy wide grey skies!
Thy mists that roll and rise!�
assonance
Assonance happens when the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound
in a nearby word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different. "Tune"
and "June" are rhymes; "tune" and "food" are assonant.
ballad
A poem that tells a story similar to a folk tale or legend and often has a
repeated refrain. �The Rime of the Ancient Mariner� by Samuel Taylor
Coleridge is an example of a ballad.
blank verse
Poetry that is written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Shakespeare wrote most
of his plays in blank verse.
caesura
A natural pause or break in a line of poetry, usually near the middle of the
line. There is a caesura right after the question mark in the first line of
this sonnet by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: �How do I love thee? Let me count
the ways.�
consonance
The repetition of similar consonant sounds, especially at the ends of words,
as in lost and past or confess and dismiss.
couplet
In a poem, a pair of lines that are the same length and usually rhyme and
form a complete thought. Shakespearean sonnets usually end in a couplet.
enjambment
The continuation of a complete idea (a sentence or clause) from one line or
couplet of a poem to the next line or couplet without a pause. An example of
enjambment can be found in the first line of Joyce Kilmer's poem Trees:
�I think that I shall never see
A poem as lovely as a tree.�
Enjambment comes from the French word for �to straddle.�
free verse (also vers libre)
Poetry composed of either rhymed or unrhymed lines that have no set meter.
metaphor
A figure of speech in which two things are compared, usually by saying one
thing is another, or by substituting a more descriptive word for the more
common or usual word that would be expected. Some examples of metaphors: the
world's a stage, he was a lion in battle, drowning in debt, and a sea of
troubles.
meter
The arrangement of a line of poetry by the number of syllables and the
rhythm
of accented (or stressed) syllables.
Elegy
A poem that laments the death of a person, or one that is simply sad and
thoughtful.
Epic
A long, serious poem that tells the story of a heroic figure. Two of the
most
famous epic poems are the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer, which tell about
the Trojan War and the adventures of Odysseus on his voyage home after the
war.
Epigram
A very short, witty poem: "Sir, I admit your general rule,/That every poet
is
a fool,/But you yourself may serve to show it,/That every fool is not a
poet." (Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
Foot
Two or more syllables that together make up the smallest unit of rhythm in a
poem. For example, an iamb is a foot that has two syllables, one unstressed
followed by one stressed. An anapest has three syllables, two unstressed
followed by one stressed. A dactyl is a metrical foot of three syllables,
one long (or stressed) followed by two short (or unstressed), as in happily.
The dactyl is the reverse of the anapest.
Quatrain
A stanza or poem of four lines.
Refrain
A phrase, line, or group of lines that is repeated throughout a poem,
usually
after every stanza.
Try to avoid unnecessary shifts from one person to another. When writing
about a person, choose one pronoun and stay with that pronoun:
Most students can pass the tests my geology teacher gives if you study.
Most students can pass the test my geology teacher gives if they study.
When I shop for food, I check the price of each item that I put in the
shopping cart. That way I know how much the bill will be when I get to the
cashier.
When I shop for food, I check the price of each item that I put in the
shopping cart. That way you know how much the bill will be when you get to
the cashier.
Possessives
Add an apostrophe and an s to words that do not end in s.
the girl�s scarf, the men�s coats, Linda�s pen
Add only an apostrophe to words that end in s.
the girls� scarves, the monkeys� tails, Mr. Harris� house.
Add an apostrophe and an s to the final word in a compound noun.
My father-in-law�s business
somebody else�s mistake
Add an apostrophe and an s to the second noun when two nouns are used to
show
ownership.
John and Gina�s mother
Smith and Lopez�s market
Generally the possessive form is not used with nonliving things.
the table leg, the magazine cover
Comparative and superlative
two people or things- comparative- add ER, precede with MORE or LESS
three or more people or things- superlative- add EST, precede with MOST or
LEAST
A subordinate clause (remember what a clause is�subject/verb) is not a
sentence because it makes an incomplete statement. It does so because it
begins with a word called a subordinator.
where, wherever, after, before, when, whenever, as, since, until, as soon
as,
while, as long as, so that, in order that, as, because, since, that, why ,
if, unless, when, whether, although, even though, while, as if, though,
although, than, �..
A sentence that has a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is
called a complex sentence.
Using subordinate clauses in your sentence construction gives you another
option for adding ideas to your sentences and variety to your writing.
Most of the time subordinate clauses can be divided into two major groups:
adjective and adverb clauses. Some are noun clauses.
Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a
comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent
(subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
1. She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
(incorrect)
2. The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
3. She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct:
extreme contrast)
None can take a singular or a plural noun, depending on what it means.
Use a singular verb when none means no one, not any, or not one.
Use a plural verb when none suggests more than one.
Good is an adjective (a word that describes nouns). Well is usually an
adverb
(a word used to describe verbs).
� Neil, who is notorious for his good behavior, has never shoplifted.
� Brian hides his anger very well.
Verb notes
Verbs tell what the subject does, did, or will do, is, was, or will be.
There are two kinds: action and linking. (Look back above�.)
Tense indicates the time the action takes place.
Present tense indicates habitual action or continuing ability. Often they
are commands or suggestions.
Deliver this message immediately. Discourage them from coming if you can.
He paints beautifully.
Present progressive tense something is taking place right now and may occur
for a while.
I am driving carefully. He is chopping onions now.
Past tense is about actions that happened before the present time.
Present
Person Singular Plural
1st I walk we walk
2nd You walk You walk
3rd He, she, it they walk
walks
Past Tense
1st I walked we walked
Most verbs change to past when d or ed is added�.those who do not follow
this
form are called irregular verbs. (CHART)
Auxiliary Verbs
These are often added to the main verb to form the verb in a sentence. They
indicate shades of meaning that cannot be expressed by a main verb alone.
They also indicate tense.
He might go to college.
He can go to college.
He should go to college.
Would he go to college?
He is going to college.
He has gone to college.
He does go to college.
He will go to college.
He will be going to college.
Two kinds of auxiliary verbs: can�t be used alone, can be used alone.
can, may, shall, will, must, could, might, should, would, ought (to)
be, am, have, do, being, is, are, has, does, been, was, were, had, did
All verbs have FIVE principal forms: present or base form, present + s,
past,
past participle, and present participle.
Present- the verb with no changes in spelling/ use the pronouns I,
you, we, they with plural nouns (walk, see)
Present + s- add s or es to the base form. It is used with singular
nouns and he, she, it.(walks, sees)
Past- add d or ed (unless irregular) (walked, saw)
Past participle- same as past unless irregular/ used with the
auxiliary verb have, has, had (has walked,
has
seen)
present participle- add ing to base form/ used with auxiliary verb
be. (is, am, are, was, were)(am
walking, am
seeing)
*drop a final unpronounced e before adding a suffix beginning with a
vowel like, liking use, using come, coming dine, dining
*drop a final single consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel IF {1}
the consonant ends a stressed syllable or a word of one syllable, and {2}if
the consonant is preceded by a single vowel.
run, running hop, hopping begin, beginning drag, dragging
Noun Clause
an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause. Like a
noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of
a preposition, answering the questions whom or what.
I know Latin.
I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
Their destination is unknown.
Where they are going is unknown.
Interrupted quote
"When you find the white whale," said Ahab, "you will receive a gold coin."
elliptical clause- a clause that implies a missing section. "I don't care
about saving money, but my mother does."
nominative- (or subjective) appears in three ways:
as the subject of the sentence
as an appositive to the subject
as the predicate nominative
objective- noun that receives the action of the verb or verbal