• Problem - ask question
• Observations
• Hypothesis - educated guess; improves with experience and prior knowledge
• Experiment--tests hypothesis

--affected by accuracy and precision

--precision

--accuracy

• practice to improve with SAME instrument
• choose more precise instrument and automatically improves

--measurements should always be BOTH accurate and precise

Analysis

Conclusion - based on analysis of data and comparison to hypothesis

Theory? (still not a FACT!)

Opinion: companies make advertisements that are NOT fact; intended to persuade you

Fact: government studies and scientific research done by consumer magazines are

usually more factual; no financial incentive to deceive you so more objective

--add acid to water (a.a.)

--NEVER smell or taste without permission

Periodic Table: Locate

Metals --to left of stairstep

Nonmetals --to right of stairstep

Metalloids - along stairstep

Group: vertical column

Period: horizontal row

Trends: # of valence electrons increase with increasing group #

# of energy levels increase with increasing period #

Noble Gases; group 18; don't form compounds; very stable; already have filled outer

Atom - smallest unit of a molecule or compound

Molecule - smallest unit of a substance

Element - made up of identical atoms; each element is identified by the # of protons

Compound

Mixture

--heterogeneous - unevenly mixed; can usually see different substances

--homogeneous - evenly mixed; called a solution (can be any state of matter)

Physical Change:

--same compound, just appears different (change of state, size, shape, mixture…)

--done by physical means (force, average kinetic energy)

--retains same chemical properties like boiling point, solubility, conductivity, etc.

Chemical Change:

--different substance due to chemical reaction (rusting, fading, burning, cooking,

digestion, respiration, photosynthesis)

--done by chemical reactions involving energy transformations

--need activation energy to get started from sun, ATP, another chemical reaction,

--gains new chemical property "signature"

--evidence: color change?, odor change, formation of gas or precipitate

matter: particles; anything that has mass and takes up space

mass: amount of matter an object has

volume: amount of space an object takes up

density: relations the object's mass to its volume

Effects many physical properties such as:

Metallic - 2 or more of the same metal

Ionic - 1 metal and 1 nonmetal (opposite sides of table)

--metal atom gives away 1 or more electrons; nonmetal takes them

--form charged ions that are then attracted to each other to make compound

Covalent - 2 or more different nonmetals; share electrons to make compound

Diatomic - exactly 2 of the same nonmetal

Polyatomic Ion: 2 or more covalently bonded atoms that behave as a single unit to form

Naming ionic compounds:

1. Ignore all subscripts and coefficients.

13. Write full name of first element or polyatomic ion in compound, including any Roman numerals.
14. Write first syllable of second element plus "ide" OR full name of polyatomic ion.

Naming covalent compounds:

1. Use subscripts to determine prefix.
2. Follow same rules as ionic compounds.

Writing formulas:

1. Write chemical symbol for first element or polyatomic ion in name
2. Look up oxidation # of second element or polyatomic ion and use this # as your subscript.
3. Write chemical symbol of second element or polyatomic ion.
4. Look up oxidation # of first element or polyatomic ion and use this # as your subscript.

Balancing equations:

--Purpose: to follow the Law of Conservation of Mass

--Reactants: compounds on the left side of the equation

--Products: compounds on the right side of the equation

--Compare # of atoms of EACH element on the left side of the equation to the right side.

--If an element shows up in 2 or more compounds on the SAME side of the

equation, balance it LAST!

--Check for simplest ratio.

Types of Reactions:

--Solvent - substance that does the dissolving (water)

--Solute - substance that gets dissolved (sugar)

--"like" dissolves "like"

--polar solvent can dissolve ionic and polar solutes (ions); water is the universal solvent

--nonpolar solvent can only dissolve nonpolar solutes

--Solubility

Factors affecting the rate of solubility

--Increase surface area (smaller pieces, like by crushing), increase temperature, or

stirring/shaking causes SOLID solutes to dissolve faster (not MORE)

--Decrease temperature or increase pressure causes GAS solute to dissolve faster

--Dissolving something is a physical change

pH £ 7 à acid (the lower the number the stronger the acid)

7 à neutral

pH ³ 7 à base (the higher the number the stronger the base)

--King Henry Danced Bravely Down Central Main

King Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk

--to find how much of the base the prefix stands for:

--1^st Law

--2^nd Law (F = m * a)

--explains why object move

--relates force needed to overcome an object's inertia and accelerate

--greater mass, greater force needed

--greater net force used, greater acceleration will be

--3^rd law

--for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

--always involves force on 2 different objects

--same force on smaller mass will accelerate it more

--rocket, trampoline, swimmer

--types - light

--transversal

--energy moves perpendicular to motion of medium (material it

--fastest in vacuum, then gas, then liquid, then solid

--longitudinal (compressiosnal) - sound

--energy moves in the same direction as the motion of medium

--depends on vibrations of molecules, so moves fastest in densest

--interactions

--reflection

--happens at boundary where a wave hits a new medium

--portion of wave "bounces" back

--angle of incidence (angle of incoming ray) exactly equals

angle of reflection (outgoing ray) but in opposite direction from

normal line (drawn perpendicular to surface of new medium)

--refraction

--happens at boundary where wave enters a new medium

--wave bends because its speed changes

--if new medium is denser, it slows down the wave and

it bends toward the normal

--if new medium is less dense, the wave speeds up and

bends away from the normal

--diffraction

--happens when a wave passes through a small hole or slit or bends

around an obstacle

--changes shape of wave from planar (straight line) to circular

--absorption

--some or all of wave's energy is absorbed as it travels through the

--types

--chemical (stored in food)

--mechanical (thrown ball)

--radiant (sunlight, heat lamps)

--nuclear (atomic bomb)

--transformations

--Law of Conservation of Energy (neither destroyed nor created)

--resources

--renewable (wind, water, solar)

--nonrenewable (fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, natural gas; nuclear)

--types

--Lever category

--lever

--pulley

--wheel and axle

--Inclined plane category

--inclined plane

--wedge

--screw

--mechanical advantage (usefulness)

--lever (fulcrum closes to resistance force)

--pulley (most # of supporting ropes)

--inclined plane

types of energy involved: thermal energy à internal energy

transfer of thermal energy from one substance to another is called heat

types of transfer:

--the amount of energy needed by a single gram of a substance to raise its

13. Viruses have a basic structure of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA not both) and a protein coat (capsid). Viruses are considered non-living because they need a host cell in order to reproduce.
14. The four different shapes that a virus can be are: Polyhedral (many sided), spherical, rod shaped, or polyhedral with a tail.
15. Viruses cannot be killed with medications since they are non-living.

Bacteria

1. Bacteria are considered living organisms. They are placed into one of two different kingdoms

(Archaebacteria and the Eubacteria).

2. Bacteria are made up of prokaryotic cells.

3. The three different shapes that a bacterium can be are:

bacillus (rod shaped), spirillum (spiral), and coccus (round).

16. Bacteria reproduce by a process called binary fission (the cell simply splits).
17. There are both helpful and harmful bacteria. Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) is an example even though it can contaminate food we have E. Coli living symbiotically (mutualistically) in our intestines.

• Ecology- The study of the interaction of living organisms with one another and with their environment.
• Producer- Any organism that is able to make its own food either using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• Consumer- An organism that eats other organisms or organic matter instead of producing its own nutrients or obtaining nutrients from inorganic sources.

• Commensalism- An ecological relationship between two organisms in which one benefits and the other neither benefits or is harmed.
• Parasitism (Parasite)- An ecological relationship in which one organism lives on or in another organism and absorbs nutrients from it.
• Food chain- The pathway of energy transfer through various stages as a result of the feeding patterns of a series of organisms.
• Food web- A diagram that shows the feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem.

CELL ORGANELLES:

1. Cytoplasm — a mostly fluid internal environment of a cell
2. Ribosomes — structures on which proteins are made
3. Nucleus - directs cell activities and is the storage center for the cell’s DNA
4. Mitochondria — a specialized organelle that converts the energy stored in food into a form that is usable by the cells (ATP). Mitochondria are the "power plants" of the cell
5. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) — an extensive system of membranes throughout the cell that creates a series of channels that act as a highway system through the cytoplasm
6. Rough ER - Many proteins and lipids are manufactured on the surface of the ER by ribosomes. Ribosomes on the outer surface of the ER result in rough ER.
7. Smooth ER - ER without ribosomes
8. Golgi apparatus — the cell’s packaging and distribution center; it receives proteins and lipids from the ER and labels them with tags that specify their destination, then releases the molecules in membrane-wrapped vesicles to be sent somewhere else in the cell or exported from the cell.
9. Vacuoles — fluid-filled spaces surrounded by membranes; they function in digestion, storage, support, and water balance
10. Lysosome - contain digestive enzymes which digest excess an worn out organelles, food particles and engulfed viruses and bacteria
11. Chloroplast - chlorophyll-containing organelles found in the cells of green plants and some protists; captures light energy and converts it to chemical energy

ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL DIFFERENCES:

• Plants have a cell wall — a thick outer layer that contains the carbohydrate cellulose and protein. The cell wall gives strength and rigidity to the cell.
• Vacuoles are often more highly developed in plant cells. They have large central vacuoles that may occupy 30%-90% of the cell’s volume. The stored water helps the plant to stand upright (this is why plants wilt and become limp when they haven’t gotten enough water)
• Plants still have mitochondria but they get their food (which the mitochondria still convert to ATP) from chloroplasts — organelles that can make food (sugars) using air, water, and the energy from sunlight. This process is known as photosynthesis.

1. The basic building block is the phospholipid bilayer which has a polar "head" and nonpolar "tail"
2. The polar heads are directed towards the outside and inside of the cell where the watery environments are. The nonpolar tails are buried in the interior of the membrane, away from any water.
3. Molecules that need to enter the cell do so through "gates" made of proteins that form tunnels through the interior of the membrane. The membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell.

DNA contains instructions for all living things. It must also somehow copy itself to pass these instructions from one generation to the next.

Structure - James Watson and Francis Crick were the first to make a model of the DNA molecule.

They determined it had a double helix shape. The molecule is composed of nucleotides which contain:

1)a phosphate group

2)a five carbon sugar molecule

3)a nitrogen-containing base

The bases are the key. There are four bases. Adenine(A), thymine(T), guanine(G), and cystosine(C)

Replication - DNA must copy itself for the production of new cells. Replication is the process of DNA copying itself. It can copy itself exactly because of the molecular structure of the bases. Adenine only bonds with thymine and cystine only bonds with guanine.

A == T

C == G

If a sequence of bases is G-A-C-C the matching base would be C-T-G-G. When DNA is copied the double strand is ripped apart by special enzymes which allow bases floating freely in the nucleus to attach to the appropriate base of the DNA chain.

Transcription - is the process in which instructions for making a protein are transferred from DNA to the RNA molecule. The RNA copies info from the DNA much in the same way as DNA replicates itself. Once RNA has transcribed itself it leaves the nucleus and attaches itself to a ribosome where the protein chain will be constructed.